Reconstructing the social responsibilities of African universities towards citizenship education: perspectives from the ujamaa philosophy of Julius Nyerere

Even though the role of higher education in economic development and innovation has been widely discussed, its relevance in constructing democratic and civic values that pervade citizenship education is yet to be properly explored. The significance of higher education in Tanzania has also been discussed within the broad framework of the economic benefits of such education; yet, the social relevance of universities enhancing citizenship and community values has not been properly interrogated. This research approaches universities as social institutions that play significant roles in the social construction of civic values and citizenship. The paper draws its perspective from the ujamaa philosophy of Julius Nyerere. The Swahili word ujamaa is an African philosophy that means ‘familyhood’ or ‘brotherhood’. It deeply entrenches social justice and equality via community, mutual respect, reciprocation and the responsibility of cooperating for the common good of all. This paper sets out to investigate the extent to which graduates of Tanzanian universities inculcate the values of ujamaa philosophy and citizenship education while rendering social services to communities. This enquiry carries fundamental questions, such as what social and civic values are and whether university graduates can acquire these through citizenship education that helps them to engage with their communities. How do the experiences of graduates relate to the African philosophy of ujamaa and Nyerere’s principles of community education? From the analysis of data (n = 30), this paper demonstrates that higher education institutions and graduates have great potential to embrace the values of African philosophy towards the notion of community services, social engagement, civic values and citizenship. The paper concludes that civic values and the sense of community that have been built among graduates show that citizenship education in Tanzanian universities within the framework of ujamaa philosophy can positively influence the exercising of social responsibility by the country’s higher education institutions.


Introduction
The role and significance of higher education institutions have always been the subject of academic enquiry.The liberal and utilitarian notions of the role of higher education institutions mainly focus on the production of knowledge and an input-output model of institutions based on quantifiable and measurable units in economic terms (Bloom et al., 2014).Understanding based on such a framework defines the role of higher education in terms of production, dissemination, application, promotion, protection, control and the utilisation of knowledge (Woldegiorgis, 2021).This is partly a function of the neo-liberal impetus brought by the rise of the knowledge-based economy, which appropriates high-level skills embodied in human capital (Passaro et al., 2018).The ascendancy of neo-liberalism and the associated discourses of 'new public management during the 1990s has produced a fundamental shift in how universities and other higher education institutions have defined and justified their institutional existence.Within such a framework, universities are managed as corporate organisations based on profit imperatives, and knowledge is taken to be a means of production and higher education institutions to be agents of innovation (Kamara et al., 2008).
Nevertheless, the social responsibilities of higher education in terms of democratisation, social mobility, strengthening civil commitment and active citizenship have not been widely discussed.The higher education sector, as one of the most enduring institutions of civilisation, is socially situated and its role cannot be reduced to the mere production of knowledge and economic growth.The role of a university must not be confined exclusively to its capacity to produce knowledge but also to its potential to link it with citizenship in such a way that its role is also important when it comes to structuring the social and cultural dimension of the knowledge society (Coelho & Menezes, 2021).With the current complexities of social structure and interconnectedness of socio-economic and political challenges, universities cannot remain as ivory towers detached from the society in which they are situated.Higher education has the social role and responsibility of advancing our understanding of multifaceted issues, which involve social, economic, scientific and cultural dimensions and our ability to respond to them.
The notion of social responsibility has become an increasingly important element in the role of higher education, and it has become part of the debate about competitiveness and sustainability in the context of globalisation (Vasilescu et al., 2010).Within the context of globalisation, the notion of social responsibility affirms the urgency of re-examining the social relevance of universities in light of the encounter of the locals with the global.Reiser defines the concept of social responsibility in higher education as follows: A policy of ethical quality of the performance of the university community (students, faculty, and administrative employees) via the responsible management of the educational, cognitive, labour and environmental impacts produced by the university in an interactive dialogue with society to promote sustainable human development.(Reiser, 2008, p. 2) Social responsibility in the context of higher education institutions includes the need to strengthen civil values, commitment to community services and active citizenship by encouraging stakeholders to provide social services to their local communities.
The idea of social responsibility in learning spaces has always been embedded in the African philosophy of brotherhood and community.There are indigenous practices that create spaces in which individuals can make meaning of their existence in the world, abiding by cultural practices and frameworks that validate and acknowledge a meaningful existence for all.For instance, the African philosophies of ubuntu and ujamaaa directly refer to the notion of community, interdependence and social responsibilities.This philosophy of community and brotherhood is founded on the principle that people are not just isolated individuals but are interconnected in diverse ways with other individuals within the social and natural environment (which is part of the whole universe).Ujamaa is a Swahili word meaning familyhood or brotherhood (Mukhungulu et al., 2017), while ubuntu means 'humaneness' or 'I am because we are'.The African philosophies of ubuntu and ujamaa argue that an individual is a person through other individuals (Ewuoso & Hall, 2019, p. 94)-and that none of us comes into the world fully formed.In describing ubuntu, Tutu (1999) noted that 'We would not know how to think, walk, speak, or behave as human beings unless we learned it from other human beings.We need other human beings to be human' (Tutu, 2004, p. 25).
This paper aims to discuss universities as social institutions that play a significant role in the social construct of citizenship.Taking Tanzanian universities as a case, the paper argues towards a multi-dimensional conceptualisation of citizenship education, foregrounding an African epistemology by drawing from the ujamaa philosophy of Julius Nyerere.The research explores the role of Tanzanian universities in developing the notion of citizenship and social responsibility.What social and civic values are university graduates able to acquire through citizenship education that help them to engage with their communities?How do the experiences of graduates relate to the African philosophy of ujamaa and Nyerere's principles of community education?The study applies the ideas of citizenship education to analyse the perspectives of graduates, reflecting on their experiences of university education through qualitative indepth interviews.Findings from interviews with 30 Tanzanian university graduates (drawn from one public and one private institution) are presented.The paper argues that the African philosophy of ujamaa can be a conceptual framework that brings in the notion of social responsibility and citizenship in the pedagogy of African universities.It argues that universities are social institutions that can nurture and cultivate citizenship values in students to enhance deliberation and civic actions for human development.

Higher education and citizenship
Citizenship is a complex, dynamic, contested, contextual and multi-dimensional socio-cultural and political construct which needs to be set in its historical context (see McCowan, 2009;Smith et al., 2005;Waghid, 2005).The meanings, characteristics, interpretations and applications have changed throughout history.As a concept, citizenship connotes different dimensions including status (issues of membership), identity (issues of belonging), civic virtues (dispositions, values and behaviours) and agency (issues of engagement and political efficacy) (Balibar, 2017).The concept and practice can also be understood within the broader categories of 'political and civil rights' and 'membership in a community practice' (McCowan, 2009, p. 87).These are competing views of the liberal and civic republic notions of citizenship and its relations with the state and society.The liberal perspective focuses on the notion of rights guaranteed by the state, focusing more on states' assurance of political and social rights but not on the obligation of political and civil participation (Heater, 2013).In contrast, the civic republican notion focuses on the idea of community, membership and participation without denying the importance of citizens' rights (Walker & Fongwa, 2017).
Despite diverse views, however, the concept of citizenship in a true sense embraces the essence of rights, identity, civic virtues, community participation and social responsibilities (Heater, 2013;McCowan, 2009).As argued by Waghid (2005), citizenship is a practice of membership (political, social and economic) within communities that exert certain values (of commitment, responsibility, accountability and public participation).Thus, citizenship education empowers individuals by inculcating civic values and a sense of community.It equips individuals with community skills to be responsible, respectful, and participatory citizens committed to justice in a pluralistic democracy (Johnson & Morris, 2010).The higher education sector in Africa has predominantly been occupied with the responsibility of training personnel that fit the various sectors of the labour market.The curriculum exposes students to diverse conceptual, theoretical and practical skills specialising in a certain profession which helps them to render services in the places of their employment (Walker & Fongwa, 2017).Nevertheless, it is imperative that for students to fully participate in social engagement, they develop a comprehensive literacy scale with the essence of the necessary citizenship skills, knowledge and dispositions.
Even though formal education in classrooms could provide knowledge and skills through teaching, informal engagements with communities through social services shape the behaviour and civic culture of individuals in a society.This is partly related to the Social Learning Theory, which argues that individuals acquire knowledge and skills, shape attitudes and develop civic literacy through citizenship and community participation (Brady, 2017).Social learning refers to learning through interactions in a social and community context and is often used as the theoretical basis for attitude development.Even though several research studies have been done on the social responsibility of higher education and social learning in the context of the Global North, there is still an empirical void for developing countries (Walker & Loots, 2016).The idea of social responsibility and citizenship education can be discussed within the context of training students to contribute to community development and learn through social engagement (Annette & McLaughlin, 2005).Citizenship or civic engagement does not only involve the offering of social services through participation but also learning through observing others and cognitively manipulating social experiences to improve students' intellectual skills.
Generally, higher education institutions assume three distinct but interrelated missions, namely teaching, knowledge production and community outreach.Until the last decades of the twentieth century, the third mission (also known as community engagement) had received little research attention.Although the third mission generally aims to contribute to society's socio-cultural and economic transformations, its distinct characteristics are still under-theorized.Many higher education institutions have included the notion of community engagement in their mission statement, referring to the interactions and relationships that institutions have with their surrounding communities (Salomaa, 2019).Community engagement refers to the range of activities in which university staff, students and management interact with communities in mutually beneficial ways, either as part of teaching and research or as community projects.Citizenship education prepares students for such community engagements, equipping them with the knowledge and skill to interact with communities in their professional capacity.Thus, the social responsibility of universities and citizenship education should be part and parcel of the core activities of universities.
Researching youth in student leadership at African universities, Luescher-Mamashela (2011) argues for the importance of citizenship education in shaping the leadership skills of African youth.He indicates that African universities have the potential to enhance political awareness and knowledge about civic virtues, community service and democratic values through citizenship education.Using the Afrobarometer1 surveys of three countries, namely South Africa, Kenya and Tanzania, the Luescher-Mamashela (2011) project undertook an extensive investigation of student leaders' political attitudes and behaviours to understand the contribution of African universities to citizenship development.The findings from the research indicate that African universities foster democratic leadership in civil society through extracurricular development of students' capacity for democratic leadership on campus (Luescher-Mamashela, 2011).In a similar context, Walker and Loots (2016) present a case from South African universities and argue that higher education institutions are community spaces for the formation of citizenship capabilities and democratic values.Generally, the central idea of citizenship education in Africa is to create synergy between higher education institutions and society at large through community engagement and training students with civic and democratic values (see Walker & Fongwa, 2017;Unterhalter et al., 2018;Mtawa, 2019).
Creating the policy framework and operationalising the practice of civic engagement has always been a challenge for African universities, even though various studies have demonstrated the significance of citizenship education for promoting the social responsibilities of higher education institutions.The Tanzanian higher education system has also defined the role of universities mainly in economic terms-providing less attention to social imperatives (Ndyali, 2016).The role of higher education in Tanzania has been intricately linked to the country's economic development plans.In the Tanzanian Development Vision for 2025, for instance, higher education is regarded as 'critical in enabling the nation to effectively utilise the knowledge and mobilise domestic recourses to assure the provision of peoples' needs and attain competitiveness in the regional and global economy' (The United Republic of Tanzania, 1999).It is indeed important to emphasise the role of higher education institutions for economic growth and development; nonetheless, it is also of paramount importance to give a space for social imperatives to advance the social responsibilities of Tanzanian universities through civic engagements and citizenship education.As Fongwa (2019) argues that there are inherent aspects of public good (social benefit) within what has been traditionally described as a private good, which is employment and earnings.The economic and social benefits of university education are, therefore, intertwined.
African universities must engage with the societies in which they are located through community services and citizenship education.As Yesufu (1973) stated, 'the truly African University must be one that draws its inspiration from its environment: not a transplanted tree, but one is growing from a seed that is planted and nurtured in the African soil' (p.33).An African person is an integral part of society, and according to Sogolo, 'an African is not just a social being but a being that is inseparable from the community' (Sogolo, 1993, p. 191).The core values of African philosophy are also founded on the notion of community.Whether it is ubuntu or ujamaa philosophy that is being applied, community comes first.The individual is born out of and into the community; therefore, they will always be part of the community.An individual is a product of their environment, a reflection of their experience and creation of their community.As Frantz Fanon (1955) argued, 'in the world through which I travel, I am endlessly creating myself ' (p. 229).The ontology of co-existence, interdependence, and communalism are all aspects of African as a philosophy of life.This African ontology can be used to construct the epistemological foundations of community engagement and citizenship education in African universities.
This paper argues towards an African philosophy of ujamaa for social engagement and citizenship education in African universities, taking empirical insights from graduates of Tanzanian universities.The study explores how graduates relate the value of higher education to their personal development as well as to their communities.

Ujamaa philosophy by Julius Nyerere
Learning and education can be a delicate and formal transmission of cultural and intellectual heritage from one generation to another; they can otherwise involve the constant reconstruction of experience, rather than the transmission of past values, to make experience more meaningful and capable of solving present problems (Ibanga, 2016).Julius Nyerere, the first president of the Republic of Tanzania , tried to bring the communal and individual values of education together into the context of African culture.Thus, within the context of African socialism, in the 1970s, Nyerere introduced his educational philosophy derived from the African concept of ujamaa.As articulated by Nyerere, ujamaa critiques colonial education that only instilled individualistic values and trained individuals for the service of the colonial state and white-collar skills (Nyerere, 1968).Even though Nyerere articulates the notion of community service and civic education within the African philosophy of ujamaa, his philosophy is influenced by the socialist ideology of the time.As such, during the formulation of Nyerere's educational philosophy, Tanzania's national philosophy and developmental goals were based on the policy of socialism and self-reliance enshrined in ujamaa and popularised in the Arusha Declaration of 1967 (Ibanga, 2016).Thus, Nyerere was trying to inculcate African culture and ontology into the socialist ideology of the time to inform public policies.In the 1982 version of his publication, 'Education for Self-Reliance', Nyerere argues that: We have said that we want to create a socialist society which is based on three [principles]: equality and respect for human dignity; sharing of the resources which are produced by our efforts; work by everyone and exploitation by none.We have set out these ideas clearly in the National Ethics; and in the Arusha Declaration and earlier documents, we have outlined the principles and policies we intend to follow.(Nyerere, 1982, p. 239) As such, Nyerere's African philosophy would broadly bring contextual relevance and meaning to what we envision as citizenship education in Tanzania and the rest of Africa.Nyerere's philosophy of education is explained in his March 1967 column and reasserted in the 1982 edition of 'Education for Self-Reliance'.The policy demands a comprehensive transformation of Tanzania's education systems to accommodate the socio-economic needs of the country's peoples.Nyerere's educational philosophy is designed to address the legacies of colonial education systems that have marginalised African perspectives.According to him, colonial systems perpetuate inequality, individualism and intellectual arrogance that disregard African ontology and epistemology.Nyerere (1967) argues that education should provide a plural space for both social and economic engagements and encourage the development in each citizen of three things; an enquiring mind and the ability to learn from what others accept/reject or adapt to their own needs; it also requires citizens to have basic confidence in their positions as free and equal members of society, who value others and are valued by them for what they do and not for what they obtain (Nyerere, cited in Liundi, 2011, p. 60).
Nyerere imagines an education system that serves social justice and equity, inculcates civic values and community services and promotes social cohesion and brotherhood (Mukhungulu et al., 2017).He refuses to create a parallel distinction between formal and informal education as he argues that an African should be trained both in academic institutions interactions with African communities.According to Nyerere, students should be required 'as part of their degree or professional training to spend at least part of their vacations contributing to the society in a manner related to their studies' (Nyerere, 1982, p. 252).His philosophy de-emphasises paper qualifications that merely assess a student's ability to learn facts; rather, he recommends that the assessment of a student should include their relative contribution to community development (Ibanga, 2016).Nyerere asserts that the main purpose of education is to create an intergenerational space to exchange accumulated wisdom and knowledge in society from one generation to subsequent generations through formal, informal, institutional and cultural channels.He articulates the significance of experience and observation as an epistemological process of learning when combined with the idea of thought and analysis.
Nyerere sees education as the means to achieve social emancipation, human liberation and equality.He argues that the core aim of higher education must be to inspire a desire for change, and an understanding that change is possible.Through the philosophy of ujamaa, he presents an innovative and yet 'localised' theory of social change that is committed to bringing equality, as well as economic and social justice in postcolonial Tanzania.His point of departure is that there can be neither freedom nor social justice without human equality.Nyerere links his idea of education with the philosophy of ujamaa and argues that to have a just society, an individual should be assessed by their actions in the community and not by skin colour, material wealth or intellectual ability (Nyerere, 1968).According to him, the notion of social justice and equality is deeply entrenched in the African philosophy of ujamaa-community, mutual respect, responsibility, reciprocation and the responsibility of cooperating for the common good of all.Nyerere (1967, p. 262-263) outlines eight ethical principles that are the basis of ujamaa.These are (1) equality of all human beings; (2) the right to the equal part in state power at local, regional and national level; (3) the right to freedom of expression, of movement, of religious belief, of association; (4) the right to protection for life and property; (5) the right to receive fair return for labour; (6) collective ownership of all the natural resources; (7) the responsibility of the state to intervene actively in economic life to prevent exploitation of any person and (8) the responsibility of the state to take an active role in the fight against colonialism.A main aspect of the ujamaa philosophy is the emphasis on community, collaboration and social justice, which Nyerere takes as a cultural foundation to resist the competitive and individualist notion of capitalist ideology.His objective was to liberate individuals from colonial values that had alienated Africans from their past.Nyerere argued that reclaiming African philosophy helps to reconstruct African identity and achieve the emancipation of the mind.He stated that in order to reclaim critical consciousness, the African must pursue intrinsic merit in his native philosophy and traditional value system.
Nyerere's philosophy of education links social responsibility, civic education and community engagement to the functions of higher education institutions.According to the ujamaa philosophy, education must inculcate a sense of commitment to society that contributes towards human-centred development.The idea of self-reliance, the emancipation of the mind, critical consciousness, equality, social justice, common good and development dominates Nyerere's philosophy of education.Nyerere set out some of his vision for higher education in the oft-referenced 1967 article 'Education for Self-Reliance' which became a part of his wellknown 1968 book 'Freedom and Socialism', in which he voiced his arguments towards promoting self-reliance and critical consciousness.He strongly believed that higher education should not be left to the few elites as a special privilege or even be considered an investment in human capital; rather, it should be a fundamental right of all citizens (Nyerere, 1968).According to Nyerere, higher education needs to address the realities of African societies and foster the social goals of living together and working together for the common good.This research aims to articulate the implications of Nyerere's principles of education and ujamaa philosophy on graduate students from selected Tanzanian universities.

Methodology
Primary data for the study were collected in April-August 2019 using semi-structured interviews with graduates drawn from two Tanzanian universities, namely the public University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), and the private Kampala International University in Tanzania (KIUT).During the interviews, graduates were asked to reflect on their experience of the notions of social responsibility, community engagement and citizenship education.A total of 30 graduates (15 from each of the above-mentioned universities) were interviewed.The two universities were selected to provide an extensive understanding of the value of university education in Tanzania towards citizenship.The study included only individuals who had a minimum of 4 years previously at the time of the interviews.The 4-year post-graduation timeframe was set to ensure that respondents had had enough time to consolidate their experience since graduation.
From each university, graduates were sampled from three faculties: (1) Faculty of Art and Social Science, specifically Bachelor of Education (BSc Edu); (2) Faculty of Law, Bachelor of Law (BSc Law) and (3) Bachelor of Computer Science (BSc Comp).In the sampling process, the study ensured diverse participants in terms of gender and time elapsed since graduation (minimum of 4 years after graduation).Data were analysed thematically using Nvivo software along seven codes: access to university, employment, care (support), responsibility, friendship, knowledge and resilience.The study then looked at how these codes could be mapped and related to the citizenship values indicated in the theoretical framework.

Findings
The research posed the following questions: What social and civic values are university graduates able to acquire through citizenship education that helps them engage with their communities?How do the experiences of graduates relate to the African philosophy of ujamaa and Nyerere's principles of education?Based on the thematic analysis, the following skills and civic values were identified as those that graduates in Tanzania had developed through citizenship education during and after university.The range of skills and civic values discussed in this section reflects what graduates had gained from their university education, their contributions to society and what they thought were the benefits of their degrees, both to themselves and their communities.However, it is essential to note that the university type (that is, public or private) did not seem to influence the development of these values, as both public and private university graduates had similar comments.

Care for and support for others' well-being
Analysis of data illustrates that graduates interpreted the idea of care and well-being in terms of their relationship to themselves and the community they belong to.Most respondents stated that their sense of care and well-being are intrinsically linked to the community to which they belong.The social and civic values they acquire from their university training have created a sense of citizenship and community in their daily lives.Their notion of care and well-being manifested through the financial and social support they render to their immediate community and family members.Graduates indicated how they had been able to take care of or support their families (parents and siblings) as they had sacrificed a lot for their education.They argued that it was now their time to assist their families and communities.For instance, Stewards, a law graduate indicated that: I am now helping my family after all the years they have spent money on me.Although I can't say that I am doing a lot, I know that it wouldn't be the same if I didn't go to school or university, to be specific.(Stewards, BSc Law, KIUT) Similarly, an education student stated that: I am the firstborn child in my family.So, whatever I am doing now, I think about my family and siblings.Attending university allowed me to get this job and assist my parents in taking care of my siblings.I send pocket money to my siblings every month.That is my responsibility.(Martha BSc Edu, KIUT) These comments highlighted the financial support that graduates had been able to provide to their families.In thinking about financial struggles in their community, graduates had been able to financially assist in some form.In explaining the benefits of their degrees, one graduate from UDSM acknowledged that his parents now had medical aid because of him (Paul, BSc Comp, UDSM).In this way, Paul's parents were no longer having to worry about hospital bills when they got sick.Broadly, such comments illustrate how graduates enable financial benefits that allow their families to thrive.
Similarly, graduates demonstrated how they had been professionally supportive and helpful to the broader society.For instance, Martha explained the contribution of her job in a research company in informing people about dengue fever: I am making a massive contribution to my society through this job, ensuring that people stay healthy and well.We have been going to the community for research and awareness on different issues.For example, now that there is a spread of this disease called dengue fever, we usually go to places that are most affected and educate them on the critical alerts to minimise the spread of the fever.(Martha, BSc Edu, KIUT) In the same way, Michael2 clarified his contribution: I think I have made an enormous contribution to my society because, until now, I have helped many people.I have done some marketing for some people.They are happy about it, and their sales grew, which I think is a good thing for me, that I was able to help people make a profit in their work.(Michael, BSc Comp, UDSM) Law graduates talked about pro bono cases and the free legal advice they had been giving to people in the community, family, and friends.Consider the following example of Joyce: Normally, the government hands out different cases for those who cannot afford a lawyer.Therefore, you handle a case of someone who cannot afford to pay and commit yourself as if you are being paid.I do not get anything out of it, but it is just my contribution to my community.(Joyce, BSc Law, UDSM) Helping society included taking on pro bono cases, or what Rehema, a law graduate from KIUT, described as 'helping the poor'.Asifiwe added that he had been part of different cases that aimed to bring positive change in society: I have been part of different cases that are called strategic litigation; these are cases that bring positive results to society.I participate in the case of early childhood marriage by pushing the new age to move from 15 years to at least 18 years, considering the impacts of early childhood marriage.So, participating in such cases makes a significant impact on our society by helping and saving the lives of young girls who were forced to get married at a young age.(Asifiwe, BSc Law, KIUT) Such comments indicate that graduates are not only concerned with people's welfare but also have an interest in social and public affairs.They have concerns about what is best for other people rather than themselves.Key to the graduates' comments above is the ability to understand and support the wishes and desires that someone else might value for their own well-being.It constitutes a less individualised notion of what it means to be a citizen, aligned with ujamaa.

Knowledge and awareness
Reflecting on their university education, graduates indicated that they had gained awareness and understanding of critical and complex questions about society.For example, Sarah argued that: Going to university allowed me to shift from a primitive mindset to being educated.I had some beliefs prior to going to university, but after going to university, I have become an ambassador of what I have learned and educated people.Therefore, through university, I have learned about my profession and other questions about life, including how to live with people.(Sarah, BSc Edu, UDSM) Similarly, Dennis (BSc Comp, UDSM) stated that 'my education has helped me gain more awareness regarding my career and life in general, including how to interact and live with other people'.In explaining how she has gained awareness from her university education, Joyce from UDSM shared what she learned from one of the seminars she had attended at university: Our society has some misconceptions like pregnant women are not supposed to eat eggs . ..but education has helped bring awareness because I also used to have such misunderstandings.Education takes you to another world, teaches and corrects you in beliefs that are not valid.I did not only learn that it is not true that pregnant women are not supposed to eat eggs, but I also learn the necessary foods that a pregnant woman needs to eat.(Joyce, BSc Law, UDSM) The knowledge and understanding of issues in society also gave graduates the ability to participate in and debate matters that could bring solutions to the community.'I can now argue for and against different political and technological topics because I know what I am talking about,' said Kenny (BSc Comp, UDSM).Rehema (BSc Law, KIUT) also added that 'I like it when my dad calls me msomi (scholar) and consults me for legal advice or discussions.It feels good to participate in such discussions where older people listen and trust what you say'.Such comments indicate that graduates' ability to debate different issues and acquire knowledge for pleasure and personal development.For instance, Jane (BSc Law, KIUT) showed that her education helped her to realise and acknowledge her rights wherever she went.In this context, graduates' knowledge of issues and their awareness of critical and complex questions about society resonate with Nyerere's notes about learners.For instance, Nyerere (1967) insists that education should prepare learners so that they are able to understand problems facing society, interpret their decisions and be cognisant of the consequences of their actions on their community.Enquiry or critical thinking about different facets of life is also important; as graduates indicate in the next section, Ozmon and Craver (1990) add that such activities stir up a sense of commitment and responsibility.

Responsible citizens
Having knowledge and awareness also enabled graduates to be able to manage and take control of different aspects of life.They gave examples of various activities that elaborate on how responsible they are.For instance, most law graduates explained that their university education gave them awareness on what is right and wrong, indicated that they are now responsible citizens who act according to the law because they understand the implications of their actions.As Ibrahim said: In studying law, we learned how a lawyer should behave, including everything, including dressing codes, hairstyles, and ethical issues you need to pay attention to as a lawyer.This has helped us that even after graduation, you have a sense of who you are, what you should do, and how to behave.We are now taking responsibility for our lives to make the world a better place.(Ibrahim, BSc Law, UDSM) Similarly, Jane explained: I am no longer worried when I get stopped by the traffic police on the road because I know my rights.This also speaks to how responsible I am because I am aware of the rules and laws.I know that I am not supposed to drink and drive, so I behave according to the rules.Unlike other people who would say rules are meant to be broken, I would say I am more responsible.(Jane, BSc Law, UDSM) In the same way, Benjamin (BSc Edu) KIUT explained how he has been responsible for spending his salary by arguing that 'it doesn't make sense if one gets a job and then uses all the money to get drunk and be irresponsible'.Other graduates explained their responsibilities in terms of paying taxes to the government.Consider the claim of Carlos (BSc Comp, KIUT) that 'I consider myself a responsible citizen because I pay tax to the government, which helps the economic development of this country'.These comments indicate the significant influence of what students learn in class and how students relate to the knowledge they have received.While BSc Law graduates had an advantage of drawing of their legal knowledge and experiences, other graduates only focused on their individual agency to become better citizens.Importantly, graduates' responses suggest that graduates have developed a sense of responsibility for what is best for themselves and the broader society.

Positive social relations and networks
Graduates also spoke about the friendships and social networks they had created at university.They indicated that they have been able to get assistance and learn from the friendships and networks they have from university.For example, Joel commented: I had a chance to create different connections with people from different nationalities, such as Uganda, Zambia, and other countries, which allowed me to learn from them and built myself even stronger.I still contact them even today, and we exchange ideas and talk about different issues about our professions and life in general.(Joel, BSc Comp, KIUT) In a similar vein, Leah added: Another important thing that I got from university is my friends.They have now become family.We have been helping each other with many problems, and we can count on each other on anything.(Leah, BSc Edu, UDSM) Therefore, it is clear that graduates have acquired a sense of community and civic values through citizenship education that helps them to engage with their societies on many levels.
As Khadija (BSc Edu, UDSM) said, 'even if I need money today or I run into any kind of trouble, I can always count on my friends'.It was important for graduates to create such relationships because it shows a sense of familyhood even after graduating from university.Generally, this indicates that graduates were human beings capable of something more, capable of community and brotherhood.

Concluding remark: towards an African perspective
The formation of these civic values and a sense of community among graduates shows the potential of citizenship education in Tanzanian universities in taking responsibility for social development within the framework of ujamaa philosophy.Such civic and citizenship values align with Nyerere's priorities for communitarian values and practices of interest in justice and social and public affairs.More importantly, these values speak to the ujamaa philosophy regarding peace, unity and solidarity.Nyerere's principles of education are not unique to Tanzania but relate to other Africans; some values might differ in degree of importance depending on the context.Graduates' developed social and civic values suggest that graduates address themselves to a problem and look at whether what they are doing will enable the surrounding community to bring about positive change.This way, graduates understand that their well-being is also bound up with the well-being of others.As such, it is worth arguing that universities have the potential to produce graduates who are socially responsible by being critically reflective of the past and able to imagine a future shaped by social justice; this will prepare people to live together in harmony despite being in diverse societies (Mtawa, 2017).This argument is similar to Nyerere's comment that 'education for a selected few must be for service to the many' (Liundi, 2011, p. 61).In essence, universities should also be valued for their social responsibilities and potential to produce active citizens who are committed to justice and have a sense of identity and critical interest in social and public affairs This highlights to the curriculum we need and/or think about to train graduates of African relevance.Capturing the intertwined benefits of higher education, Nyerere said: It is necessary that we should realise that our young people out of school (university) are not disqualified from being farmers.They are qualified to be better farmers, and better citizens (Liundi 2012, p.58)The successful fostering of civic and citizenship values among graduates does not mean that higher education institutions in Tanzania have fulfilled their social responsibilities but should tell us that there is hope for universities in Tanzania to achieve what Nyerere started.The Tanzanian higher education system still needs to accommodate informal learning spaces through community engagement and citizenship education.As indicated earlier, Tanzanian universities are still putting too little emphasis on social development capability in favour of economic benefits (Ndyali, 2016).Nyerere's philosophy emphasises the role of higher education in raising consciousness and critical awareness among African people through inspiring both 'a desire to change, and an understanding that change is possible' (Nyerere, 1976, p. 29).The aim of education in this context is 'to liberate the mind in a way that allows people to develop a strong sense of agency characterized by a belief in their ability to master circumstances' (Mayo, 2001, p. 199).An alternative future for higher education in Tanzania would therefore blend the past with the present in the interest of the future.