A window into the academic term control mechanism: a thorough presentation of processed terms in the process of completing an environmental science dictionary

The evaluation and improvement of scientific terminology translation plays a crucial role in consistently and accurately communicating knowledge at an academic level as well as in applying this theoretical knowledge in practice. This becomes even more important in countries such as Greece where the majority of scientific innovations originate from other, predominately English-speaking, countries. Consequently, the dissemination of this knowledge must go through a translation process. Within this context, the author is conducting postdoctoral research in the academic field of Environmental Engineering and Hydraulics in the School of Engineering of the AUTh, Department of Civil Engineering. The research focuses on evaluating English to Greek handbooks in the academic field of Environmental Engineering and Hydraulics by using a translation control mechanism based on seven variables firstly derived from the studies of Belgian translatologist Dirk Delabastita. The outcomes so far highlighted the quality of academic and translation work, but also identified a number of translation ambiguities, different semantic variations of terms within the source text in relation to their context, the complete absence of certain terms in the translated text, and the use of an incorrect term’s translation. The evaluation of all these cases constitutes a comprehensive decision-making process that can be applied by any translator of technical texts. This process involves first evaluating the translated texts in their mother tongue and then suggesting enhanced term translations, ultimately contributing to the establishment of a more cohesive scientific consensus in Environmental Engineering terminology to implement the optimal utilization of scientific environmental methods by the Greek academic community to protect the environment, particularly in the highly sensitive Eastern Mediterranean region. Moreover, this process represents an initial step toward creating a state-of-the-art tool in teaching technical translation and lexicography to Environmental Engineering students as well as introducing foreign terminology to students in the faculty of engineering and the schools of English language and literature in the department of translation and intercultural studies, with specialization in technical translation.


Introduction
Technical translation plays a crucial part in the ever-growing need for international cooperation in scientific, technological, and industrial activities.This tendency is even more imperative in the European Union (EU), where the availability of technical information in a variety of languages, motivated by the fact that many companies focus their activities on international markets, but also as a result of EU legislation (Byrne 2006), increases the necessity for high-quality, up-to-date, and accurate translations of technical texts.The creation of a multi-language standardized terminology in the field of Environmental Engineering Responsible Editor: Mohamed Ksibi.
aims to strengthen international scientific cooperation, firstly between the EU countries, where European legislation needs to be thoroughly understood and implemented, and then with neighboring countries outside the EU in an area such as the Eastern Mediterranean, since environmental issues know no borders and transnational scientific synergy could constitute an important factor in dealing with major environmental hazards.
The theoretical framework of the research has been thoroughly presented by Dr. Christidou in her previous papers (Christidou 2018a(Christidou , b, 2020;;Christidou and Kamaroudis 2019) as part of her postdoctoral research, as well as her previous academic research studies (Christidou 2008(Christidou , 2014(Christidou , 2017)).This paper presents the theoretical framework of the research and the in-depth sequence of collecting terms from an English technical academic text, titled "Handbook of solid waste management" by Tchobanoglous and Kreith (2002) as well as the comparing and processing procedure with its Greek translation "Handbook of solid waste management" [Εγχειρίδιο διαχείρισης στερεών αποβλήτων] (2010).The extensive analysis of indexes is based on the work of Belgian translatologist Dirk Delabastita (1989), who developed translation strategies inspired by the techniques employed by ancient Latin rhetoricians, as analyzed by Heinrich Lausberg (1988) in his extensive presentation on the figures of speech used by ancient Greek rhetoricians.

Technical translation as an object of translatology
Technical translation is a type of specialized translation involving technical texts in a given field that are addressed to other experts.These texts relate to technological subject areas that deal with the practical application of scientific and technological information.Each field requires some expert knowledge and a familiarity with the subject matter.Although specialized translation is commonly considered highly complex at the level of vocabulary, without denying the key role played by this important aspect in certain text types, grammatical aspects with certain meanings also need to be interpreted and rendered in a target text (Manfredi 2014) 1 .
The first professor of translation whose views are closer to technical translation is Peter Newmark.He is surely not an "extremist," but also not a representative of the via media.Newmark generally believes that a translation theory can neither be universal nor can it turn a bad translator into a good one.It can definitely, though, reveal bad writing and bad translation, and for that reason, and at the same time, it can suggest basic principles and guidelines, some of which can be rather contradictory.Newmark draws a distinction between communicative and semantic translation.The former includes the translation of nonliterary texts and focuses on the reader and the target language.On the contrary, the latter includes the translation of literary texts and places emphasis on the source language and the source text, viewing it from a morphological and a content point of view.Ultimately, he mentions the "small"-but actually "big"problems of translation, such as the translation of proper names, institutions, cultural meanings, and metaphors, according to him the most significant, but also of terms that until then were ignored by the various theories of translation (Newmark 1995(Newmark , 2005)).
The distinction of text types introduced by Newmark is intensely extended as an analytical strategy by Katharina Reiss and the typological approach that she represents.According to it, the success of the translation mainly depends on whether the translator is aware of the type of the original text and maintains the special features that condition it.The text types are grouped in three basic types: informative, expressive, and operative texts.Each one's characteristics are clearly depicted by their name.The first type aims at conveying information, so consequently the translation focuses on the precise communication of the information content.The second type is featured by the existence of an artistic or aesthetic style, and as a result, the translation has to respect the special characteristics of the original's form.Finally, the third type aims at persuading or dissuading, that is, convincing the reader, and as a consequence the translator's job lies in achieving the same impact on the reader as the original (Reiss 1983).
With the description of the aforementioned features, the concept of Skopos is innate, a concept that becomes the fundamental term of Christiane Nord's translation theory, who continues the thinking of Reiss.Nord introduces functionalist study and translation criticism.After having performed a historical retrospect and reviewing other translation theorists of functionalism, such as Hans J. Vermeer, she presents the "Theory of Action" and the "Skopostheorie/ Theory of Skopos."In the first case, translating is conceived as "intentional" and "interpersonal interaction," as well as "communicative" and "intercultural action," also entering the field of "text processing."In the second case, as one can understand by its naming, the "intention" and the "aim (purpose, skopos)" of the original text are being studied as components of translation, along with the abiding relationship with the "intratextual coherence2 ".The intratextual coherence is definitely based on the morphosyntactic rules of the target language that guide the text syntax (Nord 1997).
Werner Koller, who also forms part of the German school, comments on the multi-used concept of equivalence (Äquivalenz), placing emphasis on denotative equivalence (denotative Äquivalenz), and spots translation strategies (Übersetzungsverfahren) that consist of particular types of correspondence (Entsprechungstypen): one-to-one correspondence (Eins-zu-eins-Entsprechung), one-to-many correspondence or diversification (Eins-zu-viele-Entspre chung/Diversifikation), many-to-one correspondence or neutralization (Viele-zu-eins-Entsprechung/Neutralization), one-to-zero correspondence or blank (Eins-zu-Null-Entsprechung/Lücke), and one-to-part correspondence (Eins-zu-Teil-Entsprechung).There are five suggested ways that the translator can adopt for the one-to-zero or blank correspondence: (a) adoption of the expression in the source language from the target language, either in inverted commas without transliteration or without inverted commas with transliteration according to the phonetic, graphemic, and/or morphologic rules of the target language, (b) loan translation (Lehnübersetzung), in which expressions of the source language are translated word-for-word in the target language but the newly created expressions were not existent in the language, (c) translation of the expression in the source language from one already existing in the target language with a similar meaning, and primarily, the closest to the meaning of the original expression, (d) the expression of the source language translated with a word of explanation or annotation in the target language, and (e) adjustment or adaptation, that is, substitution of the registered expressions of the source language in specific communicative situations, with a communicative verbal unit of the target language having a function and concept similar to that of the original expression (Koller 1992).
Apparently, the aforementioned views focus on the communicative dimension of the translator.The work of Basil Hatim and Ian Mason is considered to be within this framework, as seen in its title.Moreover, they stress the communicative aspect of translation, consisting of six parameters, which, in their opinion, the translator should take into account and research: (1) cohesion, 3 (2) coherence, 4(3) intentionality,5 (4) situationality,6 (5) intertextuality,7 and ( 6) informativity. 8The first two parameters concern the purely verbal aspect of translation, that is, on a morphosyntactic level, the third and fourth the social-in a broader sense-aspect, and the latter two the semantic (Hatim and Mason 1997).
Many theorists and researchers followed the functional and communicative study of translation.One of them is Delabastita (1989), on whose work is based a significant part of the study and search of our translation tool, as will be presented further on.As noted by the author (Christidou 2018b) in this case, despite the modern theoretical background, the suggested typology derives from the ancient rhetoricians.However, this is not something striking, given the fact that the art of rhetoric has a mainly communicative character, as does translation.Furthermore, this happened with renowned success-naturally, on a practical level-in the historical beginnings of translation.
All the aforementioned theories of technical translation can play a greater or lesser role in evaluation, as the latter concludes a set of different functions that can be fulfilled by implementing the theoretical framework of technical translation.

Collecting of terms
Firstly, a four-column table is created.The number of rows correspond to the number of terms indexed in the technical academic text.The four columns are labeled "English term," "Greek translation," "Translational choice," and "Comments-suggestions," respectively.Each English term 1 3 is recorded in alphabetical order on the basis of the index of the source text.Next to the term, the word "index" is written, followed by the number of the page on which it appears in the index, all enclosed in brackets.Afterward, the term is located within the text according to the corresponding page number listed in the index.The located terms are recorded in the first column of the table under the respective entry, and if variations of the same term are identified, they are numbered sequentially.In cases in which a composite term appears in different parts of the same sentence, the entire context is recorded.If the composite term appears in different parts of the text, it is recorded next to the term number (e.g., 2a, 2b, etc.).The recorded terms are accompanied by the chapter number, page number, and line number on which they appear.After completing the recording of the English term, the process continues with locating and recording their Greek translations.The numbering of the Greek translations corresponds with their English counterparts.If the Greek index includes additional terms not found in the original index, these are recorded separately.

Processing of terms
The subsequent stage of the process involves recording the characterization and explanation of the translation strategy employed, along with comments on the translation process.
This typology includes the following translation strategies as they are presented in Table 1: The aforementioned typology serves as a basis for studying the terms, initially as they appear in the indexes and subsequently as they appear in context within the text.Furthermore, extensive lexicographic and bibliographic research was conducted by utilizing general and specialized dictionaries and online databases.When required, suggestions of more accurate translations were provided.The subsequent tables present a number of terms with each one of the collected and processed translation strategies, categorized accordingly.

Conclusions
The aforementioned lexicographical procedure aims in either preventing or correcting the existence of several scientific errors that could lead to the lack of the accuracy of content and, of course, to the ambiguity of terminology.Moreover, possible incorrect syntactic errors underline the lack of compatibility between common language and terminology.The translation manages to remain equivalent to the original text, usually in a communicative way, as it is required to achieve the same purpose, and this is obvious in its style.However, sometimes the grammar-syntactic rules of the Greek language may not be followed to a significant degree, and we can argue whether some translations would be typical of the Greek scientific literature.
As far as a general commentary regarding the processed terms is concerned, the published Greek translation can be described as an academic and translational work of high quality, where adherence to norms of the source text prevails The components of the signs are repeated in a somewhat different internal order, there being an alteration of the sign's textual relations Delabastita 1989

Substitutio
The sign is replaced with an altogether different sign Delabastita 1989

Deletio
All the elements of the translation unit are erased Delabastita 1989 Non-translation (i) where the term is not translated, not even transliterated, but appears as it is in the source language, Christidou 2008Christidou , 2018b (ii) (ii) where only part of the term is translated, (iii) where a term from the original index is omitted from the Greek index, (iv) where acronyms and proper names remain in the source language without transliteration, (v) where the wrong employment of one of the aforementioned strategies leads to a mistake in the translation of a term

Table 2
Examples of repetitio translation strategy English term

Comments-suggestions
(1) Incorrect maintenance of the general syntactic, lexical, and morphological structure of the term, as in the English index the noun "industry" has been converted to the adjective "industrial."The correct spelling of the Council's name appears within the English text (see 2) (2) Through incorrect conversion of the noun "industry" to the adjective "Βιομηχανικό" [Industrial].Apparently, the translator was influenced by the misspelling of the term in the English index.The correct translation of the term is: "Ευρωπαϊκό Συμβούλιο Χημικής Βιομηχανίας" [European Chemical Industry Council].In addition, an adiectio occurs by adding the entire English term, as well as its abbreviation in brackets.The acronym "CEFIC" in particular is written twice, before and after the English term, for no apparent reason

Table 3
Examples of adiectio translation strategy English term

Comments-suggestions
(1) Non-indexing of the term in the Greek index (2) By correctly adding the noun "αποβλήτων" [waste] for the purpose of term clarification

Table 4
Examples of detractio translation strategy English term

Comments-suggestions
(1) Non-indexing of the term in the Greek index (2) By deleting the noun "art" from the Greek translation, information is removed from the term.The correct translation would be "υλικά τέχνης" [art materials].A repetitio also occurs by keeping the English acronym "CPSC" without explaining it further, because it was obviously explained on the previous page (σ.510) (1) Landfills, runoff/run-on controls in (index, i.8) 1) - (3) By deleting the "runoff/run-on" nouns, information is removed from the term.A detractio also occurs by removing the adjective "municipal" from the Greek acronym.Additionally, a detractio occurs by removing the adjective "solid" from the Greek acronym.Finally, an adiectio occurs by adding the adjective "Υγειονομικής" [sanitary] within the Greek acronym "ΧΥΤΑ" as the English term does not indicate the method of burying or depositing waste (2) Transmutatio

Comments-suggestions
(1) Non-indexing of the term in the Greek index (2) By misplacing the preposition "versus," which is correctly translated to the preposition "κατά" [versus] between the proper names "Ουάσιγκτον" [Washington] and "Όρεγκον" [Oregon], while the court dispute is between the company A.G.G.Enterprises and Washington County, which is located in the State of Oregon.A detractio also occurs by deleting the acronym "Inc."from the name of the company.Finally, the company name "A.G.G.Enterprises" is not translated and is retained in the English language (1) Metals, recovery of (index, i.9) (1) -(2a) Materials generated, recovered, and discarded in the municipal waste stream, 1998 5.5, p.5.20, Table 5.16  5.16 (2β) Μέταλλα 5.5, σ.221, Πίνακας 5.16 (2β) Repetitio Comments-suggestions (1) Non-indexing of the term in the Greek index (2a) By converting the English term "municipal waste stream" into the Greek acronym "ΔΣΑ," which refers to "Δημοτικά Στερεά Απόβλητα" [municipal solid waste].
In addition, a transmutatio takes place by converting the past participles "generated," "recovered," and "discarded" into nouns "Παραγωγή" [production], "Ανάκτηση" [recovery] και "Απόρριψη" [disposal].Additionally, an incorrect transmutatio is performed by misplacing the nouns "Ανάκτηση και Απόρριψη" [recovery and disposal] after the noun "υλικών" [materials] in contrast to the noun "production," which is correctly placed in the first position of the sentence.This creates ambiguity as to what the nouns "Ανάκτηση και Απόρριψη" [recovery and disposal] refer to.The correct rendition would be: "Παραγωγή, Ανάκτηση και Απόρριψη υλικών στα ΔΣΑ το 1998" [Production, recovery and disposal of materials in the MWS, 1998] (2b) Retention of the general syntactic, lexical, and morphological structure of the English term over subscription to norms originating in the target culture (Toury 1995), thus leaning more on the translation's adequacy rather than its acceptability by the target audience.
Concerning the typological approach of the translational work (Reiss 1983), the translator is fully aware of the original text type and maintains the special features that condition it by producing an informative text type, thus focusing on the precise communication of the information content rather than respecting the special characteristics of the original's form.
Minor linguistic problems that were traced during the term processing procedure do not alter the core of the (2) Substitutio

Comments-suggestions
(1) Non-indexing of the term in the Greek index (2) By replacing the noun "do-it-yourselfers" with the phrase "από ερασιτέχνες που τα αλλάζουν μόνοι τους" [amateurs who change them (the used oil) by themselves], it is characterized as correct as there is no corresponding term in the Greek language.In addition, a substitutio is performed through an incorrect translation of the noun "disposal" with the noun "διάθεσης" [dispensation, distribution], a common mistake in the Greek language, which is interpreted as: (a) the use or exploitation of space or time for the execution of a specific project, (b) the granting of the possibility of use to another, and (c) the promotion in market and consumption (Babiniotis 2005), while the correct term would be its rendering with the noun "απόθεση" [deposition], since the waste in question is not transported for further use, but for sanitary safe disposal (1) Pollution, prevention of (index, i.11) (1) -( 1) Non-translation (2) Recycling and pollution prevention 13C.5, p. 13.157, l.19 (2) Ανακυκλοφορία και Πρόληψη της Ρύπανσης 13Γ.5, σ.971, γρ.34 (2) Substitutio

Comments-suggestions
(1) Non-indexing of the term in the Greek index (2) By deleting the acronym EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) the second time it is mentioned from the Greek translation, information is not removed from the Greek translation.A correct adiectio also takes place by adding the adjective "Αμερικάνικη" [American] that identifies the following acronym EPA.Finally, a non-translation occurs by not translating and retaining the acronym EPA in the English language (2) Buy Smart, Buy Safe 10,5, p.10.28, l.5 (2) Buy Smart, Buy Safe 10.5, σ.524, γρ.33 (2) Non-translation

Comments-Suggestions
(1) Non-translation and retention of the noun "eddy" in English, while it appears in the Greek text with the first letter capitalized, creating the impression that it is a proper noun.The noun in question comes from the corresponding currents observed in water in the field of fluid dynamics, causing regional turbulences that give rise to persistent vortices, and should be translated in Greek as "δίνη" (2) Non-translation and retention of the noun "eddy" in English, while it appears in the Greek text with the first letter capitalized, creating the impression that it is a proper noun.The noun in question comes from the corresponding currents observed in water in the field of fluid dynamics, causing regional turbulences that give rise to persistent vortices and should be translated in Greek as "δίνη" scientific knowledge presented in the Greek translation of the book, but an adhesion to a more meticulous rendition would have covered most of the aforementioned problems.Therefore, it is advisable to include a high-skilled translatologist to the translation group when attempting to provide such an important scientific book to the Greek academic community.
The results of this research will be utilized for creating a digital bilingual scientific dictionary in the field of Environmental Engineering.This project will aid in building consensus and establishing a standardized terminology in the environmental domain, which should constitute a primary concern, especially at the university level.
Taking the aforementioned process into consideration, Dr. Christidou taught at the university level, in consultation with the professors of the Department of Civil Engineering, AUTh, some basic concepts of this translation evaluation procedure.Teaching was mainly focused on points of concern and ambiguity that occur in academic texts and their Greek translations.These teachings took place outdoors, either in landfills or in places that serve as an example of the city's natural beauty, a fact that satisfied students immensely and tied them together as a group with common goals, namely the protection of the environment, by suggesting ways to enhance international scientific collaboration, given that the translator acts as a cultural mediator.
Funding Open access funding provided by HEAL-Link Greece.Dr. Christidou did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.No funding was received for conducting this study.No funds, grants, or other support was received.Dr. Christidou has no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.Dr. Christidou certifies that she has no affiliations with nor involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.Dr. Christidou has no financial or proprietary interests in any material discussed in this article.

Table 5
Examples of transmutatio translation strategy

Table 6
Examples of substitutio translation strategy

Table 7
Examples of deletio translation strategy

Table 8
Examples of non-translations