Solving Problems in Social–Ecological Systems: Definition, Practice and Barriers of Transdisciplinary Research

Translating policies about sustainable development as a social process and sustainability outcomes into the real world of social–ecological systems involves several challenges. Hence, research policies advocate improved innovative problem-solving capacity. One approach is transdisciplinary research that integrates research disciplines, as well as researchers and practitioners. Drawing upon 14 experiences of problem-solving, we used group modeling to map perceived barriers and bridges for researchers’ and practitioners’ joint knowledge production and learning towards transdisciplinary research. The analysis indicated that the transdisciplinary research process is influenced by (1) the amount of traditional disciplinary formal and informal control, (2) adaptation of project applications to fill the transdisciplinary research agenda, (3) stakeholder participation, and (4) functional team building/development based on self-reflection and experienced leadership. Focusing on implementation of green infrastructure policy as a common denominator for the delivery of ecosystem services and human well-being, we discuss how to diagnose social–ecological systems, and use knowledge production and collaborative learning as treatments. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13280-012-0372-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.


Brown bears and forest reindeer herding in Lapland
Due to conservation policies and implementation programs in combination with successful management strategies, large carnivore populations are gradually recovering in many parts of the world (Mech 1995;Linnell et al. 2001). These recently re-colonized areas encroach on an established human population, and consequently predator species can come into conflict with human interests (Ernest and Boyce 2000) and eventually affect local communities in areas where both humans and carnivores coexist (Cozza et al. 1996;Mishra 1997;Thirgood et al. 2005;Woodroffe et al. 2005). This situation is particularly critical in the Swedish reindeer husbandry region, especially in forested herding areas. Brown bear (Ursus arctos) predation on reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) calves is causing substantial impact on forest reindeer herds, forcing governmental authorities to find viable alternatives to contribute to functional conflict resolution. An alternative to increased governmental subsidies and compensation payments is requested from decision makers, carnivore managers and reindeer herders.

Moose hunting and wolves in Norway
The main sources of conflict between hunters, wolves and moose hunting in Norway are that wolves kill many moose, that hunters are therefore forced to reduce their harvest, and that wolves kill hunting dogs (Skogen and Krange 2003;Storaas et al. 2008

Protected area networks' functionality in Sweden
Swedish policies pronounce that naturally occurring species should be maintained in viable populations. This requires maintenance of functional networks of habitats. Angelstam et al.

Spatial planning for habitat networks in Scotland
The

Swedish Environmental Objective "Magnificent Mountains"
The Swedish Environmental Objectives (EO) should guide activities among all economic sectors, stakeholders and the public at large (SOU 2000:52

Cultural and natural values in road planning
The TransportMistra research program aimed to contribute to more sustainable transport systems. The INCLUDE sub-program focused on the inclusion of natural and cultural values in planning for transport infrastructure (e.g., Antonson et al. 2010;Mikusinski et al. 2012). After the first of two planned 3-year phases, the project was terminated due to poor scientific quality, poor collaboration with end-users and a failure to present plans for useful applications. In response to this, researchers initiated an evaluation led by an external researcher who interviewed researchers, representatives for end-users, and the donors. The result showed that the sub-program management, end-users and many researchers had a poor initial understanding of transdisciplinary research, scientific leadership failed in creating a creative space for researchers and end-users, and that integration between and within researchers and end-user groups was poor. To conclude, transdisciplinary knowledge production processes require much time, needs facilitation, and should initially not be too complex with too many actors and activity levels.

Land consolidation in Dalarna County, Sweden
In the past, when land was inherited it was divided among heirs (Sporrong 1994). As a consequence, land became fragmented but gave the region a distinct culture, social capital, level of entrepreneurship and an attractive cultural landscape (Westholm 1992). When forestry and agriculture became industrialized (Antonson and Jansson 2011) land fragmentation was seen as a problem. Efforts aiming to deal with this in Dalarna county lagged behind those in other parts of Sweden, but have recently been intensified (Länsstyrelsen Dalarna 2010). The land consolidation has been a top-down process, aiming to convince private land owners about land consolidation. The states' will to pursue the land consolidation process involves "forest political, regional and other society-economical motives" (Anon. 2003). However, there is an ongoing transition to use land consolidation as a social learning process that considers all sustainability dimensions.

Creation of the Roztochya Biosphere Reserve in Ukraine
The Biosphere Reserve (BR) concept seeks to simultaneously reconcile and promote conservation of natural and cultural diversity, environmentally and socio-culturally sustainable economic development, and research (UNESCO 1995;Elbakidze et al. 2013). The Roztochya BR is located in Western Ukraine. It was established after many years of intensive discussion and of numerous attempts of BR-promoters to garner the acceptance of local communities. The study of Roztochya BR development and establishment (Elbakidze et al. 2012) shows that implementation of the BR as "learning sites for sustainable development" (UNESCO 2008) benefits if: (1) the national terminology describing BRs is chosen carefully because it affects how it is perceived by stakeholders; (2) the legislative interpretation of BR in national legislation reflects its multi-sectoral character; (3) stakeholders who implement local BR initiatives have the understanding, knowledge and will to lead and facilitate SD as a collaborative social learning process towards ecological, economic, social and cultural sustainability.

Public procurement of food with an environmental profile
Public procurement has been proposed as a driver for environmental improvement as well as product and technological development (Pedersen 2011;SOU 2011). Food production has major direct and indirect environmental as well as health impacts. Improved environmental performance through procurement is of clear societal interest. Nevertheless, when procuring organizations' attempt to stipulate environmental requirements, they tend be challenged in court to an unprecedented degree. The Swedish Environmental Procurement Board, which is tasked with developing and supporting environmental public procurement, could not understand why the food and meals sector was so conflict ridden compared to other procurement sectors. Hence it commissioned a transdisciplinary study to better understand the difficulties (Schlyter et al. 2011). The main driver of litigation was, unexpectedly to stakeholders, to be found in the dynamics of the public procurement, i.e. the system dynamics as such, rather than the will of any individual actor.

Landscape character vs. health and wellbeing
Green environments benefits human health (Björk et al. 2008;Annerstedt 2011

Stress, neurobiology, and green space management
Urbanization and disconnection with nature have disrupted the balance between human's biological conditions and how we behave. One consequence is maladaptive stress reactions, manifested as varied mental disorders (McEwen andWingfield 2003, Lederbogen et al. 2011). In spite of many empirical studies showing associations between nature and stress relief (Bowler et al. 2010), neither health policies nor the medical agenda have been much influenced. One reason may be the lack of knowledge on the physiological mechanisms, and a more profound knowledge of complex gene-environment interactions. A recent transdisciplinary project involving medicine, psychophysiology, and virtual technology demonstrated a measurable positive effect on the parasympathetic nerve system by exposure to virtual nature and nature sounds. This is among the first studies demonstrating a possibility to record advanced physiological measures in a virtual nature setting, something that may inspire future studies on the interactive networks of risk factors involved in the ontogeny of disordered development and health. This would serve as a helpful contribution to epidemiological hierarchical regression models in detecting multiple interacting causal effects. Such approaches to complex systems of health and environment could potentially steer policies concerning matters from public health to natural resource management.

Establishment of a rehabilitation garden
The global burden of neuropsychiatric diseases is a major threat to public health for the foreseeable future (Murray and Lopez 1996). In the EU, less than one third of all cases receive any treatment or rehabilitation, suggesting a considerable level of unmet needs (Wittchen et al. 2011). The growing number of sick leaves attributed to stress and work related factors require increased demands on effective rehabilitation programs. However, effects of traditional medical rehabilitation considering sickness absenteeism and work ability for this group are weak (Kuoppala and Lamminpää 2008). By contrast, nature assisted