Abstract
Understanding the long- and short-term weathering features according to rock type is very important for maintaining the original form of stone heritages. In this study, the material characteristics of a deteriorated five-story stone pagoda were compared with those of fresh rocks from its quarrying site at nearby Geumgolsan Mountain, Korea, to diagnose the degree of damage and develop a comprehensive interpretation of the weathering mechanism. The stone pagoda was built from lithic tuff comprising pumice and phenocrysts such as quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase, and mica based on plagioclase substrates; the mineralogical and geochemical characteristics are similar to those of the fresh rocks. The lithic tuff of the stone pagoda demonstrated a low ultrasonic velocity of 2863 m/s and a high water absorption rate and porosity of 9.5% and 19.2%, respectively, which are poorer than the physical properties of the fresh rocks (i.e., ultrasonic velocity of 3336 m/s, water absorption rate of 8.65%, and porosity of 17.83%). The lithological characteristics and physical properties demonstrated a considerable influence on the weathering and stability of the stone pagoda. In particular, fragments of relatively weak pumice detached from the original rock to form cavities of various sizes. These cavities introduced moisture within the rock, which produced oxides and hydroxides of iron and manganese. In addition, contaminants such as dust, salt crystals, clay minerals, and microorganisms adhering to the surface of the stone pagoda accelerated its physical, chemical, and biological weathering. The results of this study will be important for realizing the stable and long-term conservation of the five-story stone pagoda at Geumgolsan Mountain.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Avdelidis NP, Moropoulou A (2004) Applications of infrared thermography for the investigation of historic structures. J Cult Herit 5:119–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2003.07.002
Cabrera V, Yustres Á, López-Vizcaíno R, Merlo Ó, Ruiz MÁ, Torrero E, Navarro V (2021) Determination of the hygric properties of the heritage stone of the Cathedral of Cuenca through the water absorption by capillarity test. J Cult Herit 48:186–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2020.11.009
Chen X, Qi XB, Xu ZY (2020) Determination of weathered degree and mechanical properties of stone relics with ultrasonic CT: a case study of an ancient stone bridge in China. J Cult Herit 42:131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2019.08.007
Chun YG, Lee MS, Kim YR, Lee MH, Choi MJ, Choi KH (2015) Utilization of hyperspectral image analysis for monitoring of stone cultural heritages. J Conserv Sci 31:395–402. https://doi.org/10.12654/JCS.2015.31.4.07
Fookes PG, Dearman WR, Franklin JA (1971) Some engineering aspects of rock weathering with field examples from Dartmoor and elsewhere. Q J Eng GeolHydrogeol 4:139–185. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEG.1971.004.03.01
Germinario L, Török Á (2020) Surface Weathering of Tuffs: compositional and microstructural changes in the building stones of the medieval castles of Hungary. Minerals 10:376. https://doi.org/10.3390/min10040376
Gomes V, Dionísio A, Pozo-Antonio JS (2017) Conservation strategies against graffiti vandalism on Cultural Heritage stones: protective coatings and cleaning methods. Prog Org Coat 113:90–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2017.08.010
ICOMOS-ISCS (2008) Illustrated glossary on stone deterioration patterns. Champigny/Marne, France
Iliev IG (1966) An attempt to estimate the degree of weathering of intrusive rocks from their physico-mechanical properties. In: Proceedings of the first congress of the international society of rock mechanics, pp.109–114.
Jo YH, Lee CH (2011) Making method of deterioration map and evaluation techniques of surface and three-dimensional deterioration rate for stone cultural heritage. J Conserv Sci 27:251–260
Jo YH, Lee CH (2014) Quantitative modeling and mapping of blistering zone of the Magoksa Temple stone pagoda (13th century, Republic of Korea) by graduated heating thermography. Infrared Phys Technol 65:43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2014.02.011
Jo YH, Lee CH (2016) Displacement analysis of five-story stone pagoda in Geumgolsan Mountain, Jindo, using terrestrial laser scanning. Indian J Sci Technol 9:1–6. https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2016/v9iS1/109835
Jo YH, Lee CH, Chun YG (2012) Material characteristics and deterioration evaluation for the 13th century Korean stone pagoda of Magoksa temple. Environ Earth Sci 66:915–922. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1301-8
Kim J (2016) Climate change impact on Korean stone heritage: research trends and prospect. J Conserv Sci 32:437–448. https://doi.org/10.12654/JCS.2016.32.3.14
Kim SH, Lee CH, Jo YH (2021) Behavioral characteristics and structural stability of the walls in the ancient Korean Royal Tombs from the sixth century Baekje Kingdom. Environ Earth Sci 79:81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-8819-6
Lee CH, Jo YH (2016) Stone heritage of the Republic of Korea. In: Kato S, Reedman A, Shimazaki Y, Uchida T, Ngoc NTM, Surinkum A (eds) Stone heritage of east and southeast Asia. CCOP, pp 79–103
Lee CH, Jo YH (2017) Correlation and correction factor between direct and indirect methods for the ultrasonic measurement of stone samples. Environ Earth Sci 76:477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6810-7
López-Doncel R, Wedekind W, Dohrmann R, Siegesmund S (2013) Moisture expansion associated to secondary porosity: an example of the Loseros Tuff of Guanajuato, Mexico. Environ Earth Sci 69:1189–1201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-1781-1
Noh J, Jang H, Lim C, Hwang N, Kang SS (2020) Engineering characteristics of Mudeungsan tuff and Ipseok-dae columnar joints. J Eng Geol 30:161–173. https://doi.org/10.9720/kseg.2020.2.161
Park JH, Park ST, Lee CH (2021) Structural stability and microscale behaviors of the fortress wall from the sixth century Baekje Kingdom in ancient Korea. Herit Sci 9:65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-021-00539-8
Patil SM, Kasthurba AK (2021) Weathering of stone monuments: damage assessment of basalt and laterite. Mater Today Proc 43:1647–1658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.022
Randazzo L, Collina M, Ricca M, Barbieri L, Bruno F, Arcudi A, La Russa MF (2020) Damage indices and photogrammetry for decay assessment of stone-built cultural heritage: the case study of the san domenico church main entrance portal (South Calabria, Italy). Sustainability 12:5198. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125198
Smith BJ, Gomez-Heras M, McCabe S (2008) Understanding the decay of stone-built cultural heritage. Prog Phys Geogr 32:439–461. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133308098119
Theodoridou M, Török Á (2019) In situ investigation of stone heritage sites for conservation purposes: a case study of the Székesfehérvár Ruin Garden in Hungary. Prog Earth Planet Sci 6:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-019-0268-z
Vidal F, Vicente R, Silva JM (2019) Review of environmental and air pollution impacts on built heritage: 10 questions on corrosion and soiling effects for urban intervention. J Cult Herit 37:273–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2018.11.006
Wang M, Tan C, Meng J, Yang B, Li Y (2017) Crack classification and evolution in anisotropic shale during cyclic loading tests by acoustic emission. J Geophys Eng 14:930–938. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-2140/aa6f24
Wedekind W, López-Doncel R, Dohrmann R, Kocher M, Siegesmund S (2013) Weathering of volcanic tuff rocks caused by moisture expansion. Environ Earth Sci 69:1203–1224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2158-1
Zhang G, Gong C, Gu J, Katayama Y, Someya T, Gu JD (2019) Biochemical reactions and mechanisms involved in the biodeterioration of stone world cultural heritage under the tropical climate conditions. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 143:104723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2019.104723
Funding
None.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
There is no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This article is part of a Topical Collection in Environmental Earth Sciences on “Building Stones and Geomaterials through History and Environments – from Quarry to Heritage. Insights of the Conditioning Factors”, guest edited by Siegfried Siegesmund, Luís Manuel Oliveira Sousa, and Rubén Alfonso López-Doncel.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jo, Y.H., Lee, C.H. Weathering features of a five-story stone pagoda compared to its quarrying site in Geumgolsan Mountain, Korea. Environ Earth Sci 81, 181 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10303-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10303-1