Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Assessing the drinking water quality of educational institutions at selected locations of district Swat, Pakistan

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Environmental Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Water pollution is a primary environmental concern in Pakistan due to its serious health effects. Over more than 1.25 million people in the Swat district rely on surface and groundwater sources for drinking, agricultural purposes. Hence, the need to ascertain the drinking water quality and associated human health risks were considered highly significant. In this study, eighty water samples (40 for chemical parameters and 40 for biological parameters) were randomly collected from schools and colleges at Mingora city, district Swat. The mean values of physico-chemical water quality parameters such as pH (6.3), TDS (410.7 mg/l), EC (709.7), temperature (25.83 °C), turbidity (0.47 NTU), alkalinity (104.8 mg/l), salinity (910.0 mg/l), total hardness (348.15 mg/l), dissolved oxygen (DO) (2.35 ppm), chlorine (5.4 mg/l), fluoride (1.12 mg/l), nitrate (NO3) (44.52 mg/l) and nitrite (NO2) (4.05 mg/l) were measured using standard methods recommended by World Health Organization and the American Public Health Association. Besides, the mean value of total coliform bacteria, including fecal coliform, was found; (0.32) with standard deviation; (0.572) whereas, the mean value of Escherichia coli was found (0.3) with a standard deviation of (0.564). This study also finds the drinking water sources highly contaminated by fecal coliform bacteria, including Escherichia coli, which is the main reason for many waterborne diseases such as gastroenteritis, dysentery, and diarrhea. Additionally, residents of the area also reported some instances of viral hepatitis. Moreover, the significant variations among various water quality parameters were attributed to growing urbanization trends, nearby agricultural runoffs, lack of proper sewerage/solid waste disposal systems, and direct discharge of waste effluents containing human and animal fecal material. Hence, the need for adequate education on health hygiene and water treatment practices was highly recommended. Similarly, the execution of routine drinking water quality monitoring by relevant organizations was considered indispensable.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • After T, Jhohura FT, Akter F, Chowdhury TR, Mistry SK, Dey D, Barua MK, Islam MA, Rahman M (2016) Water Quality Index for measuring drinking water quality in rural Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study. J Health Popul Nutr 35:4

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad MK, Islam S, Rahman S, Haque MR, Islam MM (2010) Heavy metals in water, sediment, and some fishes of Buriganga River, Bangladesh. Int J Environ Res 4:321–332

    Google Scholar 

  • American Public Health Association (APHA) (2005) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st edn. American Public Health Association, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashbolt NJ, Grabow WOK, Snozzi M (2001) Indicators of microbial water quality. In: Fretwell L, Bartram J (eds) Water quality, Guidelines, Standard and Health. World Health Organization (WHO), IWA Publishing, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Baig H, Heasman KC, Mallick TK (2012) Non-uniform illumination in concentrating solar cells. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 16(8):5890–5909

    Google Scholar 

  • Barathi M, Kumar SKA, Rajesh N (2019) Impact of fluoride in potable water—an outlook on the existing defluoridation strategies and the road ahead. Coord Chem Rev 387:121–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Bej AK, Steffan RJ, DiCesare J, Haff L, Atlas RM (1990) Detection of coliform bacteria in water by a polymerase chain reaction and gene probes. Appl Environ Microbiol 56(2):307–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhowmik AK, Alamdar A, Katsoyiannis I, Shen H, Ali N, Ali SM, Bokhari H, Schäfer R-B, Musstjab SA, Eqani AS (2015) Mapping human health risks from exposure to trace metal contamination of drinking water sources in Pakistan. Sci Total Environ 538:306–316

    Google Scholar 

  • Broo AE, Berghult B, Hedberg T (1997) Copper corrosion in drinking water distribution systems—the influence of water quality. Corros Sci 39:1119–1132

    Google Scholar 

  • Brubacher J, Allen DM, Déry SJ, Parkes MW, Chhetri B, Mak S, Sobie S, Takaro TK (2020) Associations of five food-and water-borne diseases with ecological zone, land use, and aquifer type in a changing climate. Sci Total Environ 728:138808

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen CJ, Chen CW, Wu MM, Kuo TL (1992) Cancer potential in liver, lung, bladder, and kidney due to ingested inorganic arsenic in drinking water. Br J Cancer 66:888–892

    Google Scholar 

  • Cisse G (2019) Food-borne, and waterborne diseases under climate change in low- and middle-income countries: Further efforts needed for reducing environmental health exposure risks. Acta Trop 194:181–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen SM, Chowdhury A, Arnold LL (2016) Inorganic arsenic: a non-genotoxic carcinogen. J Environ Sci 123:305–332

    Google Scholar 

  • Dan’Azumi S, Bichi MH (2010) Industrial pollution and heavy metals profile of challawa river in Kano. Nigeria. J Appl Sci Environ Sanit 5(1):56–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Dasgupta S, Huq M, Wheeler D (2016) Drinking-water salinity and infant mortality in Coastal Bangladesh. Water Econ Policy 2:1650003

    Google Scholar 

  • Daud MK, Nafees M, Ali S, Rizwan M, Bajwa RA, Shakoor MB, Arshad MU, Chatha SAS, Deeba F, Murad W, Malook I, Zhu SJ (2017) Drinking-water quality status and contamination in Pakistan. Biomed Res Int 7908183:18. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/7908183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeJarnett N, Robb K, Castellanos I, Dettman L, Patel SS (2017) The American public health association’s 2017 year of climate change and health: time for action. Am J Public Health e1–e2

  • Denby L, Koenings J, LaPerrire J (1987) Effects of turbidity in fresh waters of Alaska. J Fish Manag 7:13–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Fendorf S, Michael HA, van Geen A (2010) Spatial and temporal variations of groundwater arsenic in South and Southeast Asia. Science 328:1123–1127

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghumman A, Khan M, Khan A, Munir S (2010) Assessment of operational strategies for logical and optimal use of irrigation water in a downstream control system. Irrig Drain 59:117–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant SL, Tamason CC, Hoque BA, Jensen PK (2015) Drinking cholera: salinity levels and palatability of drinking water in coastal Bangladesh. Trop Med Int Health 20:455–461

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta BK, Gupta RR (1999) Physico-chemical and biological study of drinking water in Satna Madhya Pradesh-485 001 (India). Pollu Res

  • Hafizur RM, Nuralam HM, Rumainul IM (2017) Investigation of the Physico-chemical. J Sci Technol Environ Inform 05(01):347–360

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasan HA, Muhammad MH (2020) A review of biological drinking water treatment technologies for contaminants removal from polluted water resources. J Water Process Eng 33:101035

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkman HDB, Cakir I, Worobo RW (2003) The relationship between fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli in various foods. Eur Food Res Technol 4:331–334

    Google Scholar 

  • Heijnen L, Medema G (2006) Quantitative detection of E. coli, E. coil O157, and other Shiga toxin-producing E. coli in water samples using a culture method combined with real-time PCR. J Water Health 4(4):487–498

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes MF, Beck BD, Chen Y, Lewis AS, Thomas DJ (2011) Arsenic exposure and toxicology: a historical perspective. Toxicol Sci 123:305–332

    Google Scholar 

  • Jehan S, Khan S, Khattak SA, Muhammad S, Rashid A, Muhammad N (2019) Hydrochemical properties of drinking water and their sources apportionment of pollution in Bajaur agency, Pakistan. Measurement 139:249–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalita PK, Algoazany AS, Mitchell JK, Cooke RAC, Hirschi MC (2006) Subsurface water quality from a flat tile-drained watershed in Illinois. USA Agric Ecosys Environ 115:183–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan AN (2011) Analysis of flood causes and associated socio-economic damages in the Hindukush region. Nat Hazards 59:1239

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan N, Hussain ST, Hussain J, Jamila N, Ahmed S, Ullah R, Ullah Z, Ali S, Saboor A (2012) Chemical and microbial investigation of drinking water sources from Kohat, Pakistan. Int J Phys Sci 7(26):4093–5002

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan K, Lu Y, Khan H, Ishtiaq M, Khan S, Waqas M, Wei L, Wang T (2013a) Heavy metals in agricultural soils and crops and their health risks in Swat District, northern Pakistan. Food Chem Toxicol 58:449–458

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan K, Lu Y, Khan H, Zakir S, Khan S, Khan AA, Wei L, Wang T (2013b) Health risks associated with heavy metals in the drinking water of Swat, northern Pakistan. J Environ Sci 25(10):2003–2013

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan K, Khan H, Lu Y, Ihsanullah I, Nawab J, Khan S, Shah NS, Shamshad I, Maryam A (2014a) Evaluation of the toxicological risk of foodstuffs contaminated with heavy metals in swat, Pakistan. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 108:224–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan AE, Scheelbeek PF, Shilpi AB, Chan Q, Mojumder SK, Rahman A, Haines A, Vineis P (2014b) Salinity in drinking water and the risk of (pre) eclampsia and gestational hypertension in coastal Bangladesh: a case–control study. PLoS ONE 9:e108715. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0108715

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan K, Lu Y, Saeed MA, Bilal H, Sher H, Khan H, Ali J, Wang P, Uwizeyimana H, Baninla Y, Li Q, Liu Z, Nawab J, Zhou Y, Su C, Liang R (2017) Prevalent fecal contamination in drinking water resources and potential health risks in Swat, Pakistan. J Environ Sci 72:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim EJ, Herrera JE, Huggins D, Braam J, Kosowski S (2011) Effect of pH on the concentrations of lead and trace contaminants in drinking water: a combined batch, pipe loop, and sentinel home study. Water Res 45:2763–2774

    Google Scholar 

  • Ksoll WB, Ishii S, Sadowsky MJ, Hicks RE (2007) Presence and sources of fecal coliform bacteria in epilithic periphyton communities of Lake Superior. Appl Environ Microbiol 73(12):3771–3778

    Google Scholar 

  • Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, Abraham J, Adair T, Aggarwal R, Ahn SY et al (2013) Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380(9859):2095–2128

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller M, Cronk R, Klug T, Kelly ER, Behnke N, Bartram J (2019) External support programs to improve rural drinking water service sustainability: a systematic review. Sci Total Environ 670:717–731

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohsin M, Safdar S, Asghar F, Jamal F (2013) Assessment of drinking water quality and its impact on residents Health in Bahawalpur City. Int J Humanit Soc Sci 3(5):114–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Nahian MA, Ahmed A, Lázár AN, Hutton CW, Salehin M, Streatfield PK (2018) Drinking water salinity associated health crisis in coastal Bangladesh. Elem Sci Anthrop 6

  • Naujokas MF, Anderson B, Ahsan H, Aposhian HV, Graziano JH, Thompson C, Suk WA (2013) The broad scope of health effects from chronic arsenic exposure: update on a worldwide public health problem. Environ Health Perspect 121:295–302

    Google Scholar 

  • Olasoji SO, Oyewole NO, Abiola B, Edokpayi JN (2019) Water quality assessment of surface and groundwater sources using a water quality index method: a case study of a peri-urban town in the southwest, Nigerai. Environ MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments6020023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pak EPA (2008) National standards for drinking water quality. Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Ministry of Environment) Government of Pakistan

  • Price H, Adams E, Quilliam RS (2019) The difference a day can make the temporal dynamics of drinking water access and quality in urban slums. Sci Total Environ 671:818–826

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowles LS, Hossain AI, Aggarwal S, Mary JK, Saleh NB (2020) Water quality and associated microbial ecology in selected Alaska Native communities: challenges in off-the-grid water supplies. Sci Total Environ 711:134450

    Google Scholar 

  • Shah HU, Simpson TJ, Alam S, Khattak KF, Perveen S (2010) Mold incidence and mycotoxin contamination in maize kernels from Swat Valley, Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan. Food Chem Toxicol 48:1111–1116

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharp KA (2001) Water: structure and properties. Encycl Life Sci. https://doi.org/10.1038/npg.els.0003116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shehzadi R, Rafique HM, Abbas I, Sohl MA, Ramay SM, Mahmood A, Sohl MN (2014) Assessment of drinking water quality of Tehsil Alipur, Pakistan. Desalin Water Treat 55(8):2253–2264. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2014.934735

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UN General Assembly (2010) Human Right to Water and Sanitation. UN Document A/ RES/64/292. Geneva

  • WHO (2015) Waterborne Diseases – MDGs-SDGs 2015. Available online: https://www.who.int/gho/publications/mdgs-sdgs/MDGs-SDGs2015_chapter5_snapshot_waterborne_diseases.pdf?ua=1

  • WHO (2016) Preventing Disease through Healthy Environments: A Global Assessment of the Burden of Disease from Environmental Risks

  • WHO/UNICEF Joint Water Supply, Sanitation Monitoring Programme, and World Health Organization (2015) Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2015 update and MDG assessment. World Health Organization

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the Department of Environmental and Conservation Science, University of Swat, Pakistan, for their kind support to carry out the whole study. We also extend our immense gratitude to the local municipalities and survey respondents for their cooperation. We acknowledged the help of anonymous reviewers for polishing the language of the paper. The study is completed without any external funding.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Science, School of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China

    Muhammad Salam, Md. Nuralam Hossain & Kinza Zarin

  2. College of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China

    Fakhri Alam

  3. Department of Environmental and Conservation Science, University of Swat, Mingora, Pakistan

    Mian Abdal Saeed & Waqas Khan

  4. Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China

    Tasir Khan

  5. Department of Environmental Science, International Islamic University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan

    Bakht Rwan & Waheed Ullah

  6. Department of Environmental Science, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Pakistan

    Owais Khan

Authors
  1. Muhammad Salam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fakhri Alam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Md. Nuralam Hossain
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mian Abdal Saeed
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Tasir Khan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Kinza Zarin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Bakht Rwan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Waheed Ullah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Waqas Khan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Owais Khan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

MS (corresponding author), FA and MNH collected the data and completed the analysis. MAS, TK and B did the designing and editing of the research. WU and WK carried out data verification, tabulation, and statistical analysis. OK helped in the preparation of the final draft of the manuscript. KZ helped in the minor and major revision of the paper.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Muhammad Salam.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest concerning the research, authorship, and publication of this article.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOC 254 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Salam, M., Alam, F., Hossain, M.N. et al. Assessing the drinking water quality of educational institutions at selected locations of district Swat, Pakistan. Environ Earth Sci 80, 322 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09595-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09595-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation