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Properties and Assessment of Applications of Red Mud (Bauxite Residue): Current Status and Research Needs

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Abstract

In order to conserve natural resources and prevent waste generation, effective utilization of industrial wastes and/or by-products for beneficial engineering applications becomes inevitable. In order to accomplish this, extensive research studies, exploring properties and new applications of waste materials in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner, have been initiated worldwide. Red mud (RM, also known as bauxite residue) is one of the wastes generated by the aluminium industry and its disposal and utilization have been traditionally hindered due to the extreme alkalinity (pH about 10.5–13.5). To date, no comprehensive review on various properties of RM of different origin and associated challenges in using it as a beneficial engineering material has been performed. The objective of this study is first to critically appraise the current understanding of properties of RM through a comprehensive literature review and detailed laboratory investigations conducted on Indian RM by the authors, to assess and identify the potential engineering applications, and to finally discuss associated challenges in using it in practical applications. Physical, chemical, mineralogical and geotechnical properties of RMs of different origin and production processes are reviewed. Mechanisms behind the pozzolanic reaction of RM under different chemical and mineralogical compositional conditions are discussed. Environmental concerns associated with the use of RM are also raised. Studies relevant to leachability characteristics reveal that most of the measured chemical concentrations are within the permissible regulatory limits. Overall, the review shows that RM disposal and reuse is complicated by its extreme alkalinity, which is also noticed to be influencing multiple engineering properties. But with selected pH amendments, the treated RM is found to have significant potential to be used as an effective and sustainable geomaterial. The assessment is majorly based on the characteristics of Indian RMs; hence the adaptation of the findings to other RMs should be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Moreover, field studies demonstrating the performance of RM in various engineering applications are warranted.

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Abbreviations

c :

Cohesion (kPa)

CBR :

California bearing ratio

c c :

Compression index

CH :

Clay of high plasticity

CL :

Clay of low plasticity

C p :

Collapse potential

CVPD :

Commercial vehicles per day

d :

Diameter of a particle (mm)

e :

Void ratio

G s :

Specific gravity

GGBS :

Ground granulated blast furnace slag

HRS :

Hindalco red sand

k::

Hydraulic conductivity

MH :

Silt of high plasticity

ML :

Silt of low plasticity

MP :

Modified Proctor compaction test

NRS :

Nalco red sand

OPC :

Ordinary Portland cement

p :

Applied pressure (kPa)

PTE :

Potentially toxic elements

q u :

Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

SEM/EDS :

Scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

SS1 :

Standard sand-1

SS2 :

Standard sand-2

SP :

Standard Proctor compaction test

TCA :

Tricalcium

TCLP :

Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure

UCS :

Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

w :

Water content (%)

w L :

Liquid limit (%)

w opt :

Optimum water content (%)

w P :

Plastic limit (%)

w PI :

Plasticity index (%)

γd :

Dry unit weight (kN/m3)

γ dmax::

Maximum dry unit weight (kN/m3)

ϕ :

Angle of internal friction

θ :

Volumetric water content (%)

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the financial support provided by the Ministry of Human Resources Development under SPARC Project titled “A Novel Biotreatment of Bauxite Residue for Conversion into Sustainable Geomaterial”, the Slovenian Research Funding’s P2-0273, Z1-1858, and Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India (Sanction Order SB/FTP/ETA-0297/2013). Thanks are due to György (George) Bánvölgyi for very helpful comments on the manuscript. Authors are grateful to current and past students of IIT Bhubaneswar for performing laboratory studies on characterization of the red mud. Authors sincerely thank Dr. B. K. Satpathy, NALCO, and Mr. Shubhendu Sekhar Panda, Vedanta Limited for providing the red mud samples.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Mizoram, Aizawl, Mizoram, 796012, India

    Peddireddy Sreekanth Reddy & Bijayananda Mohanty

  2. School of Infrastructure, IIT Bhubaneswar, Khorda, Odisha, 752050, India

    Narala Gangadhara Reddy & Bendadi Hanumantha Rao

  3. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, Guangdong, China

    Narala Gangadhara Reddy

  4. Department of Materials, Slovenian National Building and Civil Engineering Institute Slovenia, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia

    Vesna Zalar Serjun

  5. Department of Civil Engineering, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, 826004, India

    Sarat Kumar Das

  6. Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA

    Krishna R. Reddy

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Reddy, P.S., Reddy, N.G., Serjun, V. et al. Properties and Assessment of Applications of Red Mud (Bauxite Residue): Current Status and Research Needs. Waste Biomass Valor 12, 1185–1217 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-020-01089-z

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