On the traces of lost identities: chronological, anthropological and taphonomic analyses of the Late Neolithic/Early Eneolithic fragmented and commingled human remains from the Farneto rock shelter (Bologna, northern Italy)

The present study examines the prehistoric human skeletal remains retrieved starting from the 1920s in the deposit of the Farneto rock shelter, situated in the area of the ‘Parco dei Gessi Bolognesi e Calanchi dell’Abbadessa’ (San Lazzaro di Savena, Bologna, northern Italy). An exact dating and a reliable interpretation of the assemblage had not been reached so far because of the lack of contextual data useful for dating purposes, the inaccurate recovery procedures of the remains and their state of preservation. In fact, the skeletal remains from the Farneto rock shelter are highly fragmented and commingled, whereas reliable information about their original position and their recovery procedures are not available. Despite these difficulties, radiocarbon analyses allowed the precise dating of the remains to a final phase of the Neolithic and an early phase of the Eneolithic period in Emilia Romagna (northern Italy). The study of the assemblage enabled to clarify the use of the context for funerary purposes. Moreover, the anthropological and taphonomic analyses of the skeletal remains shed light on the biological profile of the individuals and on some events that occurred after their death. In particular, the analysis of perimortem lesions highlighted the existence of intentional interventions related to corpse treatment, referable to dismembering/disarticulation and scarnification, i.e. cleaning of bones from soft tissues. Finally, the comparison with other Italian and European Neo/Eneolithic funerary contexts enabled a better understanding of these complex ritual practices. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-023-01727-2.

The lesion (11x2 mm) is deeper on the anterior margin; on the left margin the cortical is interrupted, while on the right side the surface is continuous and sloping. Disarticulation.

Right massa lateralis
Fracture involving the whole thickness of the bone; on the condylar surface the characteristics of the lesion are not recordable because it is completely filled with sediments and proper margins of the fracture are not visible; on the inferior articular surface, the lateral portion of the lesion presents straight margins (cut mark?), while the medial portion shows a crushed area with several adhering flakes.
Disarticulation of the cranium from the column. Two cut marks, departing from the posterior part of the superior articular surface, reach the posterior part of the articular process; the end of the lesions cannot be detected because the bone is broken on its inferior part; the distance between the two cut marks is 4 mm; their overall length reaches around 10 mm ( Fig. 8a, b).
Disarticulation of the cranium from the column.

C1-AMH-269
Rib ( The crushing lesion (12x2 mm) shows a U-shaped bottom with transversal rounded fractures; the posterior margin is straighter and steeper; along the anterior margin, the cortical is interrupted (Fig. 9a). In addition, along the anterior margin, an incomplete fracture line delimitates a slightly depressed area (9x3 mm).
Cleaning practices or dismembering.  (Fig. 8d, e). Among these, the most distal one shows flaking on the inferior margin and traces of sediment on the bottom (Fig. 8e). Another oblique cut mark (10 mm) is visible on the lateral distal third of the diaphysis; its distal margin is more sloping than the proximal one. Another possible lesion of triangular shape (2 mm) is located laterally to the most distal of the three thin cut marks. Defleshing.
C7-AMH-236 The cut mark (10 mm) is transversally oriented, with an almost regular V-shaped bottom; parallel microstriae on the lateral end (Fig. 8f). The most proximal chop mark (10x6 mm, but a small fragment of bone may have been lost from the inferior margin) on the posterior medial surface of the diaphysis shows a V-shaped bottom with a very thin apex. Below this, another possible chop mark (8x7 mm) is visible. Another chop mark (8x3 mm) is transversally oriented on the posterior part of the lateral epicondyle; the superior margin is steeper, while the inferior one is more sloping; some sediments fill the most lateral part of the lesion, while on the medial part some longitudinal internal striae are visible. Another long chop mark (40 mm) crosses the posterior surface of the distal epiphysis, tangent to the medial border of the olecranon fossa, with the extremities filled with some sediments; the overall width is not detectable because part of the epiphysis is broken.
Powerful or violent dismembering (interpersonal or ritual violence?).
The breakage at the middiaphysis presents some characteristics of a perimortem fracture on its lateral part, where a flake of cortical bone with a parabolic outline has been detached, leaving an irregular surface.
The overall features are more compatible with dry or mineralised bone fractures, but we cannot exclude some damage occurred during the practices of treatment of the corpse that also caused the chop marks.
The chop mark (8x1 mm) is located transversally to the latissimus dorsi and teres major enthesis; it has a Vshaped bottom with thin apex; the inferior margin is more irregular than the superior one.
The lesion (5x3 mm) has an oval shape likely produced by the tip of a blade. A small rectangular flake (4x1 mm) has detached from the posterior margin.
The lesion could be accidentally produced during other practices of treatment of the corpse.

Pelvic girdle
Anterior part of the ramus below the acetabular cavity The V-shaped chop mark (6x2 mm) is obliquely oriented, with superior margin more regular and inferior one with some flaking (Fig. 9b).
Disarticulation of the hip joint. The cut mark (10 mm) is obliquely oriented on the distal end of the gluteus maximus enthesis, with several parallel microstriae on the bottom. The perforating lesion (14x4 mm) of elliptical shape is located below the intertrochanteric line; it shows regular margins, not completely preserved. A flake of cortical bone (14x8 mm) of irregular shape has been detached 12 mm below the perforating lesion; its superior part is straight and nearly perpendicular.

Lower limb
Disarticulation or dismembering and/or defleshing. Probably violent actions caused the perforating lesion (interpersonal or ritual violence?).
The proximal bone breakage has a helical fracture outline, but the surface is quite irregular. The distal fracture presents a mixed outline (linear and curved) and an irregular surface, perpendicular in about one third of the circumference. Spalling of cortical bone (15x12 mm) is visible on its lateral part, with sediments adhering to the rupture surface.
Probably dry bone breakage, even if some perimortem damages occurred during the practices of treatment of the corpse cannot be excluded. The fragment includes the most distal extremity of the linea aspera and the lateral supracondylar line; the thin cut mark (6 mm) is obliquely oriented laterally to the linea aspera.
Defleshing. The bone flake shows an oval profile, smooth fracture surfaces and acute proximal fracture angle (Fig. 10e).
The whole bone flake may be the result of a fresh bone breakage, possibly procured during treatment of the corpse. The transversal fracture at the proximal third of the diaphysis was probably created postmortem and glued during Treatment of the corpse could have caused the spalling and an incomplete fracture that then completely broke postmortem. and lesser trochanter postmortem damage). Another chop mark, that caused the detachment of the proximal extremity (including head, neck and the superior portion of the greater trochanter, glued during previous studies), was probably inflicted from the posterior surface of the neck; a triangular portion (28x8 mm) of bone from the base of the neck has been lost. The third chop mark (10x1 mm) is obliquely oriented on the lesser trochanter (enthesis of the iliopsoas muscle), with a V-shaped bottom (Fig. 9c). At least three crushing lesions are detectable on the femoral head; one is circular (6 mm), one is elliptical (10x5 mm), while the last one is irregular in shape (9x6 mm).
previous studies, with spalling of cortical bone on the proximal (14x18 mm) and distal (6x5 mm) fragments in correspondence of the linea aspera. Dismembering. Spiral fractures with spalling of cortical bone are present at both extremities of the fragment, more evident on one end (Fig. 10c). One of these spalling areas is covered by sediments (Fig. 10d). The V-shaped chop mark (12x10 mm) is located on the medial surface, below the femoral neck, with the inferior margin more regular than the superior one; some sediments fill the lesion. On the margin of the distal breakage, on the postero-lateral aspect, two Disarticulation and dismemberment.
The proximal breakage presents incomplete fractures, spalling and compression of cancellous bone. The distal breakage shows The proximal breakage may be at least partly related to perimortem activities, while the distal one was likely produced postmortem on a previously smooth contiguous areas related to a cutting surface (12x4 mm) and to a scraping surface (5x4 mm, a depressed surface with parallel striae) are visible. The most distal lesion is a small shallow chop mark (7x1 mm). Superiorly, the biggest lesion (24x6 mm) is composed by two curvilinear sulci showing several parallel striae on the bottom. Another similar lesion (7x3 mm) is located superiorly to the previous one. More proximally, medially to the linea aspera, there is a scraped area (12x7 mm) with microstriae on the bottom. Adjacent to this, another similar area (around 25 mm) on the linea aspera is visible. Two other possible chop marks (16x7 mm and 9x7 mm) with internal microstriae and irregular surface of the sloping margins are present.
Defleshing. As regards the curvilinear sulci, rodent gnawing cannot be excluded.
The proximal breakage at about mid-diaphysis shows mixed features (a portion of transversal fracture with perpendicular surface, other portions with acute angle between fracture surface and bone surface), along with areas of peeling. The oblique cut mark (10 mm) is located in correspondence of a slightly flattened area, whose bottom shows parallel striae. Defleshing.
C7-AMH-246 Patella (1*) right AD Cut marks Medial articular surface The longest thin oblique linear cut mark (13 mm) presents several longitudinal microstriae on the bottom (Fig. 8g). Inferiorly, at a distance of 1 mm, another cut mark (3 mm) is present. On the superior part of the surface, two thin cut marks (maximum length 7 mm) form a X-shape (Fig. 8h).
Careful cleaning purposes on an already disarticulated bone. The most proximal lesion is represented by a circular depressed area (9 mm) with rough surface and at least two cut marks inside it, with parallel microstriae. Two opposed lesions are present at the mid-diaphysis; the anterior one (10x5 mm on the crest, extending laterally for other 7 mm) shows crushed and raised cortical bone; the posterior one (11x5 mm) is a chop mark with signs of scraping on the inferior border and an incomplete fracture below it.
Defleshing. The gastrocnemius muscle was probably chopped with the limb resting on its anterior portion, which shows an anvil scar.
Fractures at the two extremities present mixed features. On the proximal one, the latero-anterior surface shows a peeled area (30x12 mm), with a roughened exfoliated surface (Fig. 10f), associated with a possible chop mark on the anterior crest.  (Fig. 10a), Typical fresh bone fracture of intentional or accidental origin.
surface of the malleolus the proximal third of the diaphysis; the inferior margin is more regular with flaking. Another chop mark (8x1 mm) is present on the articular surface at the base of the malleolus; the distal part of the chop mark is filled with sediments. Posteriorly, another chop mark (3x1 mm) could be the prosecution of the same lesion or the result of a second blow. rodent gnawing cannot be excluded.
Laterally to the calcaneal anterior articular surface The lesion (17x2 mm) is represented by a linear and deep (6 mm) penetrating wound with very vertical margins (Fig. 9f). Dismembering.
*Symbol refers to elements restored during previous studies