Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Innovation and tradition in the fourth century mosaic of the Casa delle Bestie Ferite in Aquileia, Italy: archaeometric characterisation of the glass tesserae

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present paper focuses on the archaeometric characterisation of 38 glass tesserae of various colours from an in situ mosaic in Aquileia, Italy, dated to the second half of the fourth century AD. The examination of the textural, mineralogical and chemical features, conducted by means of a multi-methodological approach (optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), electron probe micro analysis (EPMA), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fibre Optic Reflectance Spectrophotometer (FORS)), has provided valuable insights into the changes in the production technology during the transition between the Roman and the Late Antique periods. The assemblage is heterogeneous, and each chromatic group is composed of tesserae produced with different base glasses and colouring/opacifying techniques, suggesting diverse supplies. A small group of tesserae shows strict links to the Roman tradition in terms of both base glass and colouring/opacifying techniques and was probably obtained by re-using tesserae from older mosaics. Conversely, a larger group of tesserae shows textural and chemical evidence of recycling and indicates the prompt use of “new” opacifying technologies (such as the use of tin compounds) or uncommon technological solutions (such as the use of quartz and bubbles as opacifiers or the addition of metallurgical slags in red tesserae), suggesting a specific production in the fourth century AD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Angel RJ, Nestola F (2016) A century of mineral structures: how well do we know them? Am Mineral 101:1036–1045

  • Barca D, Basso E, Bersani D et al (2016) Vitreous tesserae from the calidarium mosaics of the Villa dei Quintili, Rome. Chemical composition and production technology. Microchem J 124:726–735

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basso E, Invernizzi C, Malagodi M et al (2014) Characterization of colorants and opacifiers in Roman glass mosaic tesserae through spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques. J Raman Spectrosc 45:238–245

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertacchi L (1963) Nuovi mosaici figurati ad Aquileia. Aquil Nostra 34:19–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Boschetti C, Leonelli C, Macchiarola M et al (2008) Early evidences of vitreous materials in Roman mosaics from Italy: an archaeological and archaeometric integrated study. J Cult Herit 9:e21–e26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brill RH, Whitehouse D (1988) The Thomas panel. J Glass Stud 30:34–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Bueno M, Centola V (2014) Le domus di Aquileia e le loro evoluzioni architettonico-funzionali in età tardoantica: i casi delle domus delle Bestie Ferite e di Tito Macro presso i Fondi Ex-Cossar. In: Cuscito G (ed) Costantino il Grande a 1700 anni dall’ “Editto di Milano”. Editreg, Trieste, pp 317–334

  • Bueno M, Mantovani V, Novello M (2012) Lo scavo della casa delle Bestie Ferite. In: Bonetto J, Salvadori M (eds) L’architettura privata ad Aquileia in età romana, Atti del Convegno di Studio (Padova, 21–22 Febbraio 2011). Padova University Press, Padova, pp 77–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Cable M, Smedley JM (1987) The replication of an opaque red glass from Nimrud. In: Bimson M, Freestone IC (eds) Early vitreous materials. British Museum Occasional paper 56, London, pp 151–164

  • Cascales C, Alonso JA, Rasines I (1986) New pyrochlores Pb2(MSb) O6.5 (M equals Ti, Zr, Sn, Hf). J Mater Sci Lett 5:675–677

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cholakova A, Rehren T (2014) Producing black glass during the Roman period—notes on a crucible fragment from Serdica, Bulgaria. In: Proceedings of the 39th International Symposium for Archaeometry. pp 261–267

  • Di Bella M, Quartieri S, Sabatino G et al (2013) The glass mosaics tesserae of “Villa del Casale” (Piazza Armerina, Italy): a multi-technique archaeometric study. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 6:345–362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freestone IC (2008) Pliny on Roman glassmaking. In: Martinon-Torres M, Rehren T (eds) Archaeology, history and science. Integrating approaches to ancient materials. UCL Institute of Archaeology Publications, Oxford, pp 77–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Freestone IC (1994) Chemical analysis of raw glass fragments. In: Hurst HR (ed) Excavation at Carthage, The Circular Harbour, North Side. the Site and Finds Other than Pottery. Vol II. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 290

    Google Scholar 

  • Freestone IC (1987) Composition and microstructure of copper opaque red glass. In: Bimson M, Freestone IC (eds) Early vitreous material, vol 56, British Museum Occasional Paper. British Museum, London, pp 173–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Freestone IC, Bimson M, Buckton D (1990) Compositional categories of Byzantine glass tesserae. In: Annales du 11e Congrès de l’Association International pour l’Histoire du Verre (AIHV), Amsterdam, pp 271–280

  • Freestone IC, Gorin-Rosen Y, Hughes MJ (2000) Primary glass from Israel and the production of glass in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic Period. In: Nenna MD (ed) La Route du Verre. Ateliers Primaires et Secondaires du Second Millènaire av. JC au Moyen Age. Maison de l’Orient Mediterranéen, Lyon, pp 65–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Freestone IC, Stapleton CP (2003) The production of red glass and enamel in the Late Iron Age, Roman and Byzantine periods. In: Entwistle C (ed) Through a glass brightly: studies in Byzantine and Medieval art and archaeology; presented to David Buckton. Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp 142–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Gliozzo E, Santagostino Barbone A, Dacapito F et al (2008) The sectilia panels of Faragola (Ascoli Satriano, Italy): a multi-analytical study of the red, orange and yellow glass slabs. Archaeometry 50:451–473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gliozzo E, Santagostino Barbone A, Turchiano M et al (2012) The coloured tesserae decorating the vaults of the Faragola balneum (Ascoli Satriano, Foggia, southern Italy). Archaeometry 54:311–331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heck M, Rehren T, Hoffmann P (2003) The production of lead-tin yellow at Merovingian Schleitheim (Switzerland). Archaeometry 45:33–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson J (1991) Technological characteristics of Roman enamels. Jewel Stud 5:65–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson CM (2005) Making colourless glass in the Roman period. Archaeometry 47:763–780

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lahlil S, Biron I, Galoisy L, Morin G (2009) Technological processes to produce antimonate opacified glass throughout history. In: Annales du 17e Congrés l’Association International pour l’Histoire du Verre (AIHV), pp 571–578

  • Lahlil S, Cotte M, Biron I et al (2011) Synthesizing lead antimonate in ancient and modern opaque glass. J Anal At Spectrom 26:1040–1050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lilyquist C, Brill RH (1993) Studies in early Egyptian glass. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Mass JL, Stone RE, Wypyski MT (1998) The mineralogical and metallurgical origins of Roman opaque colored glasses. In: Kingery WD, McCray P (eds) The prehistory and history of glassmaking technology, ceramics and civilization. The American Ceramic Society, Ohio, pp 121–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Molina G, Odin GP, Pradell T et al (2014) Production technology and replication of lead antimonate yellow glass from New Kingdom Egypt and the Roman Empire. J Archaeol Sci 41:171–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Möncke D, Papageorgiou M, Winterstein-Beckmann A, Zacharias N, (2014) Roman glasses coloured by dissolved transition metal ions: redox-reactions, optical spectroscopy and ligand field theory. J Archaeol Sci 46:23–36

  • Moretti C, Hreglich S (1984) Opacification and colouring of glass by the use of “anime”. Glas Technol 25:277–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Nenna MD, Picon M, Vichy M (2000) Ateliers primaires et secondaires en Ègypt à l’époque gréco-romaine. In: Nenna MD (ed) La Route du Verre: Atelieres primaires et secondaires du second millinaire av. J.-C. au Moyen-Age. Maison de l’Orient Méditerranéen, Lyon, pp 97–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Neri E, Verità M (2013) Glass and metal analyses of gold leaf tesserae from 1st to 9th century mosaics. A contribution to technological and chronological knowledge. J Archaeol Sci 40:4596–4606

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nestola F, Burnham AD, Peruzzo L, et al. (2016) Tetragonal Almandine-Pyrope Phase, TAPP: finally a name for it, the new mineral jeffbenite. Mineral Mag. doi: 10.1180/minmag.2016.080.059

  • Newton R, Davison S (1989) Historical development of glass. In: Conservation of glass. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp 18–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Paynter S (2008) Experiments in the reconstruction of Roman wood-fired glassworking furnaces: waste products and their formation processes. J Glass Stud 50:271–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Paynter S, Kearns T, Cool H, Chenery S (2015) Roman coloured glass in the Western provinces: the glass cakes and tesserae from West Clacton in England. J Archaeol Sci 62:66–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peake JRN (2014) Early Anglo-Saxon glass beads: composition and origins based on the finds from RAF Lakenheat. Cardiff University, Suffolk

    Google Scholar 

  • Peake JRN, Freestone IC (2012) Cross-craft interactions between metal and glass working: slag additions to early Anglo-Saxon red glass. In: Thienpont H, Meulebroeck W, Nys K, Vanclooster D (eds) Integrated approaches to the study of historical glass. SPIE Proceedings, Brussels

    Google Scholar 

  • Rooksby HP (1964) A yellow cubic lead tin oxide opacifier in ancient glasses. Phys Chem Glas 5:20–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Salvadori M, Boschetti C (2014) “Lavorare stanca”: la disorganizzazione di una bottega di mosaicisti in età tardoantica. Il caso del mosaico delle Bestie Ferite. In: Cuscito G (ed) Costantino il Grande a 1700 anni dall’ “Editto di Milano”. Editreg, Trieste, pp 335–350

    Google Scholar 

  • Schibille N, Degryse P, Corremans M, Specht CG (2012) Chemical characterisation of glass mosaic tesserae from sixth-century Sagalassos (south-west Turkey): chronology and production techniques. J Archaeol Sci 39:1480–1492

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shortland AJ (2002) The use and origin of antimonate colorants in early Egyptian glass. Archaeometry 44:517–530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shortland AJ, Schachner L, Freestone IC, Tite M (2006) Natron as a flux in the early vitreous materials industry: sources, beginnings and reasons for decline. J Archaeol Sci 33:521–530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silvestri A, Molin G, Salviulo G (2008) The colourless glass of Iulia Felix. J Archaeol Sci 35:331–341

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silvestri A, Tonietto S, Molin G (2011) The palaeo-Christian glass mosaic of St. Prosdocimus (Padova, Italy): archaeometric characterisation of “gold” tesserae. J Archaeol Sci 38:3402–3414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silvestri A, Tonietto S, Molin G, Guerriero P (2015) Multi-methodological study of palaeo-Christian glass mosaic tesserae of St. Maria Mater Domini (Vicenza, Italy). Eur J Mineral 27:225–245

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silvestri A, Tonietto S, Molin G, Guerriero P (2014) The palaeo-Christian glass mosaic of St. Prosdocimus (Padova, Italy): archaeometric characterisation of tesserae with copper- or tin-based opacifiers. J Archaeol Sci 42:51–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tite M (2003) Production technology for copper-and cobalt-blue vitreous materials from the New Kingdom site of Amarna—a reappraisal. Archaeometry 2:285–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tite M, Pradell T, Shortland AJ (2008) Discovery, production and use of tin-based opacifiers in glasses, enamels and glazes from the late iron age onwards: a reassessment. Archaeometry 50:67–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verità M (2000) Tecniche di fabbricazione dei materiali musivi vitrei. Indagini chimiche e mineralogiche. In: Borsook E, Gioffredi Superbi F, Pagliarulo G (eds) Medieval mosaics. Light,color, materials. Silvana Editoriale, Cinisello Balsamo (Milano), pp 47–64

  • Verità M, Maggetti M, Saguì L, Santopadre P (2013) Colors of Roman glass: an investigation of the yellow sectilia in the Gorga collection. J Glass Stud 55:39–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Wypyski MT, Becker L (2005) Glassmaking technology at Antioch. In: Becker L, Kondoleon C (eds) The arts of Antioch. Worchester Art Museum, Worchester, pp 116–175

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici del Friuli Venezia Giulia for authorising the present study; Dr. P. Guerriero (CNR-ICMATE, Padova, Italy), Prof. M. Vandini and T. Chinni (University of Bologna, Italy) for the use of SEM-EDS; R. Carampin (CNR-IGG Padova, Italy) for the EPMA analysis; Prof. F. Nestola and F. Zorzi (University of Padova, Italy) for XRD analyses; Prof. G. Molin (University of Padova, Italy) for his advice and useful discussion; Prof. M. Salvadori (University of Padova, Italy) for her archaeological support; and James Peake (Bonhams, UK) for useful discussion and cooperation.

Financial support was provided by the project PRAT 2012 of the University of Padova, named “Crystals in ancient glass mosaics as indicators of raw materials and production technologies” (grant number: CPDA127550).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Cultural Heritage, piazza Capitaniato 3, 35139, Padova, Italy

    Sarah Maltoni

  2. Department of Geosciences, via G. Gradenigo 6, 35131, Padova, Italy

    Sarah Maltoni & Alberta Silvestri

  3. CNR, Istituto di Geoscienze e Georisorse, via G. Gradenigo 6, 35131, Padova, Italy

    Alberta Silvestri

Authors
  1. Sarah Maltoni
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alberta Silvestri
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah Maltoni.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Maltoni, S., Silvestri, A. Innovation and tradition in the fourth century mosaic of the Casa delle Bestie Ferite in Aquileia, Italy: archaeometric characterisation of the glass tesserae. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 10, 415–429 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-016-0359-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-016-0359-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation