Abstract
The impact of parental characteristics on mental health outcomes of early adolescents have been robustly examined in the West. However, the extent to which two salient parental characteristics, specifically parental self-efficacy (PSE) and parenting behaviours (PB) influence early adolescents’ mental health particularly emotional-behavioural problems and competence are scarcely explored among Asian households. Hence, this study examined the linkages between PSE, PB (i.e., warmth, monitoring, harsh discipline, and indigenous), and early adolescents’ mental health (i.e., emotional-behavioural problems and competence) from the perspective of Malaysian parents. The mediating role of PB on the relationships between PSE and early adolescents’ mental health was also examined. Sample comprised 478 Malaysian parents of children aged between 10 and 14 years old. Parents completed a self-report online survey regarding their PSE and PB as well as child’s mental health. Structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis indicated that PSE was positively related to parental warmth, monitoring, and indigenous parenting which predicted better early adolescents’ mental health, but negatively related to parental harsh discipline that predicted poorer early adolescents’ mental health. Results also show that high PSE is related to less emotional-behavioural problems and more competence among early adolescents. Finally, the role of warmth, monitoring, and harsh discipline parenting was established as the mediators between the relationships between PSE and early adolescents’ mental health. The findings imply that parents’ belief in their ability to perform their parenting roles and the way they behave in their parenting could have a direct and indirect impact on their offspring’s mental health.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data used in this study are not publicly available due to the confidentiality of the participants.
References
Abarashi, Z., Tahmassian, K., Mazaheri, M. A., Panaghi, L., & Mansoori, N. (2014). Parental self-efficacy as a determining factor in healthy mother-child interaction: A pilot study in Iran. The Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 8(1), 19–25.
Albanese, A. M., Russo, G. R., & Geller, P. A. (2019). The role of parental self-efficacy in parent and child well-being: A systematic review of associated outcomes. Child: Care, Health and Development, 45(3), 333–363. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12661.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.
Bandura, A. (1978). Social learning theory of aggression. Journal of Communication, 28(3), 12–29.
Bartkowski, J. P., Xu, X., & Bartkowski, S. (2019). Mixed blessing: The beneficial and detrimental effects of religion on child development among third-graders. Religions, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10010037.
Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431691111004.
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129836.
Benedetto, L., & Ingrassia, M. (2018). Parental self-efficacy in promoting children care and parenting quality. In Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68933.
Bhugun, D. (2017). Parenting advice for intercultural couples: A systemic perspective. Journal of Family Therapy, 39(3), 454–477. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6427.12156.
Blakemore, S. J. (2019). Adolescence and mental health. Lancet, 393(10185), 2030–2031. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31013-X.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
Brooks, J. E., & Morrison, M. M. (2022). Stigma and relationship quality: The relevance of racial-ethnic worldview in interracial relationships in the United States. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 923019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923019.
Bulimwengu, A. S., & Cartmel, J. (2022). The tween years: A systematic literature review for services for children aged 10–13 years. Heliyon, 8(1), e08822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08822.
Chang, F. C., Chiu, C. H., Miao, N. F., Chen, P. H., Lee, C. M., Chiang, J. T., & Pan, Y. C. (2015). The relationship between parental mediation and internet addiction among adolescents, and the association with cyberbullying and depression. Comprehensive psychiatry, 57, 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.11.013
Chong, C. H., & Yeo, K. J. (2018). The residue effects of parental corporal punishment on young adults’ psychological adjustment: Evidence from Malaysia. SAGE Open, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018757287.
Costigan, C. L., & Koryzma, C. M. (2011). Acculturation and adjustment among immigrant Chinese parents: Mediating role of parenting efficacy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021696
Collier, J. E. (2020). Applied Structural equation modeling using AMOS: Basic to Advanced techniques. Routledge.
Cui, G., & Lan, X. (2020). The associations of parental harsh discipline, adolescents’ gender, and grit profiles with aggressive behavior among Chinese early adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 323. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00323.
Daganzo, M. A. A., Alampay, L. P., & Lansford, J. E. (2014). Filipino mothers’ self-efficacy in managing anger and in parenting, and parental rejection as predictors of child delinquency. Philippine Journal of Psychology, 47(2), 1–26.
Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113(3), 487–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.113.3.487.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801.
Department Statistics Malaysia (2021, August 6). Household income estimates and incidence of poverty report, Malaysia, 2020. Retrieved March 22, 2023, from https://www.dosm.gov.my/portal-main/release-content/household-income-estimates-and-incidence-of-poverty-report-malaysia-2020.
Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: Adaptive and maladaptative processes. Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.3.
Eisenberg, N., Hernández, M. M., & Spinrad, T. L. (2017). The relation of self-regulation to children’s externalizing and internalizing problems. In C. A. Essau, S. Leblanc, & T. H. Ollendick (Eds.), Emotion regulation and psychopathology in children and adolescents. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med:psych/9780198765844.003.0002.
Estrada, C. A. M., Lomboy, M. F. T. C., Gregorio, E. R. Jr, Amalia, E., Leynes, C. R., Quizon, R. R., & Kobayashi, J. (2019). Religious education can contribute to adolescent mental health in school settings. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 13, 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-019-0286-7.
Fusar-Poli, P., Salazar de Pablo, G., De Micheli, A., Nieman, D. H., Correll, C. U., Kessing, L. V., & van Amelsvoort, T. (2020). What is good mental health? A scoping review. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2019.12.105.
Gittins, C. B., Abbott, M. J., & Hunt, C. (2020). What influences parenting behaviour? The role of parent self-concept. Behaviour Change, 37(4), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2020.13.
Glatz, T., & Buchanan, C. M. (2015). Over-time associations among parental self-efficacy, promotive parenting practices, and adolescents’ externalizing behaviors. Journal of Family Psychology, 29(3), 427–437. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000076.
Glatz, T., Cotter, A., & Buchanan, C. M. (2017). Adolescents’ behaviors as moderators for the link between parental self-efficacy and parenting practices. J Child Fam Stud, 26(4), 989–997. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0623-2.
Glatz, T., Lippold, M., Chung, G., & Jensen, T. M. (2023). A systematic review of parental self-efficacy among parents of school-age children and adolescents. Adolescent Research Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-023-00216-w.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014). Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
Hamovitch, E. K., Acri, M. C., & Bornheimer, L. A. (2019). An analysis of the relationship between parenting self-efficacy, the quality of parenting, and parental and child emotional health. J Fam Soc Work, 22(4–5), 337–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/10522158.2019.1635939.
Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76(4), 408–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903310360.
Hecker, T., Hermenau, K., Salmen, C., Teicher, M., & Elbert, T. (2016). Harsh discipline relates to internalizing problems and cognitive functioning: Findings from a cross-sectional study with school children in Tanzania. Bmc Psychiatry, 16, 118. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0828-3.
Hill, N. E., & Bush, K. R. (2001). Relationships between parenting environment and children’s mental health among African American and European American mothers and children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(4), 954–966.
Hukkelberg, S., Keles, S., Ogden, T., & Hammerstrom, K. (2019). The relation between behavioral problems and social competence: A correlational Meta-analysis. Bmc Psychiatry, 19(1), 354. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2343-9.
Inguglia, C., Costa, S., Ingoglia, S., Cuzzocrea, F., & Liga, F. (2022). The role of parental control and coping strategies on adolescents’ problem behaviors. Current Psychology, 41(3), 1287–1300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00648-w.
Institute for Public Health (2020). National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS) 2019: Non-communicable diseases, healthcare demand, and health literacy—Key Findings (National Health and Morbidity Survey 2019, Issue NMRR-18-3085-44207).
Jafari, M., Baharudin, R., & Archer, M. (2016). Fathers’ parenting behaviors and Malaysian adolescents’ anxiety: Family income as a moderator. Journal of Family Issues, 37(2), 198–220. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13513580.
Jones, T. L., & Prinz, R. J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(3), 341–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.004.
Junttila, N., & Vauras, M. (2014). Latent profiles of parental self-efficacy and children’s multisource-evaluated social competence. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 397–414. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12040.
Keijsers, L. (2015). Parental monitoring and adolescent problem behaviors. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 40(3), 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025415592515.
Kim, S. Y., & Wong, V. Y. (2002). Assessing Asian and Asian American parenting: A review of the literature. In K. S. Kurasaki, S. Okazaki, & S. Sue (Eds.), Asian American Mental Health: Assessment Theories and Methods (pp. 185–201). Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0735-2_13.
Kingsbury, M., Sucha, E., Manion, I., Gilman, S. E., & Colman, I. (2020). Adolescent mental health following exposure to positive and harsh parenting in childhood. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry Revue canadienne de psychiatrie, 65(6), 392–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743719889551.
Kumaraswamy, N., & Othman, A. (2011). Corporal punishment study: A case in Malaysia. Psychology, 86, 24–28.
Legault, L. (2020). The need for competence. In V. Zeigler-Hill, & T. K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences (pp. 3209–3210). Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
Lehmann, S., Skogen, J. C., Sandal, G. M., Haug, E., & Bjørknes, R. (2022). Emerging mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic among presumably resilient youth -a 9-month follow-up. BMC Psychiatry, 22(1), 67. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03650-z.
Liu, L., & Wang, M. (2018). Parental harsh discipline and adolescent problem behavior in China: Perceived normativeness as a moderator. Child Abuse and Neglect, 86, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.09.009.
Livingston, G., & Brown, A. (2017). Intermarriage in the U.S. 50 Years After Loving v. Virginia. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2017/05/18/intermarriage-in-the-u-s-50-years-after-loving-v-virginia/.
Madden, V., Domoney, J., Aumayer, K., Sethna, V., Iles, J., Hubbard, I., Giannakakis, A., Psychogiou, L., & Ramchandani, P. (2015). Intergenerational transmission of parenting: Findings from a UK longitudinal study. Eur J Public Health, 25(6), 1030–1035. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckv093.
Masiran, R. (2022). A review of parenting in a multicultural country: The Malaysian experience. In Parenting - Challenges of Child Rearing in a Changing Society. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101173.
Mastrotheodoros, S., van der Graaff, J., Dekovic, M., Meeus, W. H. J., & Branje, S. J. T. (2019). Coming closer in adolescence: Convergence in mother, father, and adolescent reports of parenting. J Res Adolesc, 29(4), 846–862. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12417.
Matsunaga, M. (2008). Item parceling in structural equation modeling: A primer. Communication Methods and Measures, 2(4), 260–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312450802458935.
Mejia, A., Filus, A., Calam, R., Morawska, A., & Sanders, M. R. (2015). Validation of the Spanish version of the CAPES: A brief instrument for assessing child psychological difficulties and parental self-efficacy. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 40(4), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025415591229.
Memon, M. A., Ting, H., Cheah, J. H., Chuah, F., Thurasamy, R., & Cham, T. H. (2020). Sample size for survey research: Review and recommendations. Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modeling, 4(2), i–xx. https://doi.org/10.47263/JASEM.4(2)01.
Morawska, A., Sanders, M. R., Haslam, D., Filus, A., & Fletcher, R. (2014). Child Adjustment and parent efficacy scale: Development and initial validation of a parent report measure. Australian Psychologist, 49(4), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12057.
Mouton, B., Loop, L., Stiévenart, M., & Roskam, I. (2018). Confident parents for easier children: A parental self-efficacy program to improve young children’s behavior. Education Sciences, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8030134.
Nicolas, C. C., Jorm, A. F., Cardamone-Breen, M. C., Lawrence, K. A., & Yap, M. B. H. (2019). Parental self-efficacy for reducing the risk of adolescent depression and anxiety: Scale development and validation. Journal of Research on Adolescence.
Noordin, I. D., Idris, I. B., Hod, R., Muhammad, N. A., Yusoff, M., Anuar, H., N. A., & Ghazali, M., Q (2020). Do parenting style and adolescents’ self-esteem contribute to mental health problems among young adolescents in Malaysia? An adolescents’ perspective. IIUM Medical Journal Malaysia, 19(2). https://doi.org/10.31436/imjm.v19i2.1568.
Ogundele, M. O. (2018). Behavioural and emotional disorders in childhood: A brief overview for paediatricians. World J Clin Pediatr, 7(1), 9–26. https://doi.org/10.5409/wjcp.v7.i1.9.
Osher, D., Cantor, P., Berg, J., Steyer, L., & Rose, T. (2020). Drivers of human development: How relationships and context shape learning and development. Applied Developmental Science, 24, 6–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2017.1398650.
Panchal, U., Salazar de Pablo, G., Franco, M., Moreno, C., Parellada, M., Arango, C., & Fusar-Poli, P. (2023). The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on child and adolescent mental health: Systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(7), 1151–1177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-021-01856-w.
Pinquart, M., & Gerke, D. C. (2019). Associations of parenting styles with self-esteem in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(8), 2017–2035. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01417-5.
Raj, S. P., & Raval, V. V. (2013). Parenting and family socialization within a cultural context. In E. L. Anderson, & S. Thomas (Eds.), Socialization: Theories, processes and impact. Nova Science.
Rönkkö, M., & Cho, E. (2022). An updated guideline for assessing discriminant validity. Organizational Research Methods, 25(1), 6–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428120968614.
Rubin, K. H., & Chung, O. B. (Eds.). (2006). Parenting beliefs, behaviors, and parent-child relations: A cross-cultural perspective. Psychology.
Salavera, C., Usan, P., & Quilez-Robres, A. (2022). Exploring the effect of parental styles on social skills: The mediating role of affects. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063295.
Santre, S. (2022). Mental health promotion in adolescents. Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 18(2), 122–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/09731342221120709.
Schuengel, C., & Oosterman, M. (2019). Parenting self-efficacy. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of Parenting (3rd ed., Vol. 3: Being and Becoming a Parent). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429433214-19.
Shumow, L., & Lomax, R. (2002). Parental efficacy: Predictor of parenting behavior and adolescent outcomes. Parenting, 2(2), 127–150. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327922par0202_03.
Slagt, M., Dekovic, M., de Haan, A. D., van den Akker, A. L., & Prinzie, P. (2012). Longitudinal associations between mothers’ and fathers’ sense of competence and children’s externalizing problems: The mediating role of parenting. Developmental Psychology, 48(6), 1554–1562. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027719.
Steca, P., Bassi, M., Caprara, G. V., & Delle Fave, A. (2011). Parents’ self-efficacy beliefs and their children’s psychosocial adaptation during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(3), 320–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9514-9.
Straub, L., Bateman, B. T., Vine, S., & Huybrechts, K. F. (2023). Prevalence of mental health diagnoses in commercially insured children and adolescents in the US before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Network open, 6(5), e2314415. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.14415.
Symeou, M., & Georgiou, S. (2017). Externalizing and internalizing behaviours in adolescence, and the importance of parental behavioural and psychological control practices. Journal of Adolescence, 60, 104–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.07.007.
Temple, J. R., Baumler, E., Wood, L., Guillot-Wright, S., Torres, E., & Thiel, M. (2022). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescent mental health and substance use. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 71(3), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2022.05.025.
Trecca, F., Bleses, D., Hojen, A., & Laursen, B. (2022). Direct and indirect effects from parenting self-efficacy and parenting practices to social-emotional adjustment in 3- to 5-year-old children. Acta Psychol (Amst), 229, 103673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103673.
UNICEF (2021). Adolescent mental health statistics. https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/mental-health/.
Wang, M. T., & Kenny, S. (2014). Longitudinal links between fathers’ and mothers’ harsh verbal discipline and adolescents’ conduct problems and depressive symptoms. Child Development, 85(3), 908–923. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12143.
Wang, J., Shi, X., Yang, Y., Zou, H., Zhang, W., & Xu, Q. (2019). The joint effect of paternal and maternal parenting behaviors on school engagement among Chinese adolescents: The mediating role of mastery goal. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1587. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01587.
Wang, F., Wang, M., Wang, T., & Wang, Z. (2020). Harsh parental discipline, parent-child attachment, and peer attachment in late childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30(1), 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01860-9.
WHO. (2022). Very young adolescents. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/adolescence/very_young_ados/en/.
WHO (2004). Prevention of Mental Disorders: Effective Interventions and Policy Options.
WHO (2021). Adolescent mental health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health.
Wittkowski, A., Garrett, C., Calam, R., & Weisberg, D. (2017). Self-report measures of parental self-efficacy: A systematic review of the current literature. J Child Fam Stud, 26(11), 2960–2978. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0830-5.
Wu, S. L., Woo, P. J., Yap, C. C., & Lim, G. (2023). Parenting practices and adolescents’ mental health: The mediating role of perceived maternal and paternal acceptance-rejection and adolescents’ self-efficacy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021052.
Yang, Y., Qi, Y., Cui, Y., Li, B., Zhang, Z., Zhou, Y., Chen, X., Zhu, D., He, F., & Zheng, Y. (2019). Emotional and behavioral problems, social competence and risk factors in 6-16-year-old students in Beijing, China. PLoS One, 14(10), e0223970. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223970.
Yap, M. B., & Jorm, A. F. (2015). Parental factors associated with childhood anxiety, depression, and internalizing problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 175, 424–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.01.050.
Yap, M. B., Pilkington, P. D., Ryan, S. M., & Jorm, A. F. (2014). Parental factors associated with depression and anxiety in young people: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 156, 8–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.11.007
Zainudeen, Z. T., Hamid, A., Azizuddin, I. J., Abu Bakar, M. N. A., Sany, F. F., Zolkepli, S., I. A., & Mangantig, E. (2021). Psychosocial impact of COVID-19 pandemic on Malaysian families: A cross-sectional study. British Medical Journal Open, 11(8), e050523. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-050523.
Zulkefly, N. S., Barra, S. M. M., Yahya, A. N., & Baharudin, R. (2021). Perceptions of parenting behavior by adolescents: The development of the Malaysian parenting behavior inventory. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 29(2). https://doi.org/10.47836/pjssh.29.2.15.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia for funding our research through the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2020/SS0/UPM/02/8). Additionally, we would like to thank all Malaysian parents who spared some time to participate and complete the online survey.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
ARDS executed the study, analysed the data, and wrote the manuscript. NSZ collaborated with the design, analysis, writing, and editing of the manuscript. SIFI and AINMN contributed to the research design of the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Statement
The present study involving human participants was in accordance with the ethical standards of the ethical committee of Universiti Putra Malaysia, JKEUPM (Ethic Committee for Research Involving Human Subject).
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Dzeidee Schaff, A.R., Zulkefly, N.S., Ismail, S. et al. Linking parental self-efficacy, parenting behaviour and mental health of Malaysian early adolescents. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05878-w
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05878-w