Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Optimization of Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Pulp Powder Roasting to Improve Its Quality by Using Central Composite Design

  • RESEARCH
  • Published:
Food and Bioprocess Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Roasted carob powder is produced from the pulp of carob fruit (Ceratonia siliqua L.). In this study, the roasting process was optimized using a central composite design of the response surface methodology in order to maximize the product quality and minimize processing temperature (100–160 °C) and time (5–60 min). Analysis of variance qualified the effect of roasting with different types of models: first, linear models for dry matter, glucose, and ABTS scavenging activity; then, correlative models for proteins, total dietary fibers (TDF), and polyphenols; and last, quadratic models for total flavonoids, flavonols, and DPPH scavenging activity (all significant at p < 0.05). The process increased the antioxidant activity, TDF, and total polyphenol contents, while the concentration of the other components decreased. The optimal conditions for carob roasting were 100 °C for 37.32 min.

Graphical Abstract

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

The authors included in the present paper and its supplementary information files all the relevant data.

Abbreviations

FAO:

Food and Agriculture Organization

RSM:

Response surface methodology

CCD:

Central composite design

BBD:

Box-Behnken design

AOAC:

Association of Official Agricultural Chemists

TDF:

Total dietary fibers

ANOVA:

Analysis of variance

DW:

Dry weight

DPPH:

2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl

ABTS:

2,2′-Azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid

Sqrt:

Square root

S:

Significant

NS:

Non-significant

I:

In range

m:

Minimized with high importance

N:

None

M-3:

Maximized with high importance

M-5:

Maximized with medium importance

MRPs:

Maillard reaction products

vs.:

Versus

References

  • Adedapo, A. A., Jimoh, F. O., Koduru, S., Afolayan, A. J., & Masika, P. J. (2008). Antibacterial and antioxidant properties of the methanol extracts of the leaves and stems of Calpurnia aurea. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 8, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-8-53

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ait Ouahioune, L., Wrona, M., Becerril, R., Salafranca, J., Nerín, C., & Djenane, D. (2021). Ceratonia siliqua L. kibbles, seeds and leaves as a source of volatile bioactive compounds for antioxidant food biopackaging applications. Food Packaging and Shelf Life, 31(December 2021), 100764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2021.100764

  • Ajatta, M. A., Akinola, S. A., Otolowo, D. T., Awolu, O. O., Omoba, O. S., & Osundahunsi, O. F. (2019). Effect of roasting on the phytochemical properties of three varieties of marble vine (Dioclea reflexa) using response surface methodology. Preventive Nutrition and Food Science, 24(4), 468–477. https://doi.org/10.3746/pnf.2019.24.4.468

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Akouz, A., Hasib, A., Tbib, B., & Boulli, A. (2022). Qualitative analysis of carob fruit parts, from different Moroccan origins : FTIR-ATR approach and multivariate analysis. Journal of Materials and Environmental Science, 13(6), 713–722.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amessis-Ouchemoukh, N., Ouchemoukh, S., Meziant, N., Idiri, Y., Hernanz, D., Stinco, C. M., et al. (2017). Bioactive metabolites involved in the antioxidant, anticancer and anticalpain activities of Ficus carica L., Ceratonia siliqua L. and Quercus ilex L. extracts. Industrial Crops and Products, 95, 6–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.10.007

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Andreou, V., Kourmbeti, E., Dimopoulos, G., Psarianos, M., Katsaros, G., & Taoukis, P. (2022). Optimization of virgin olive oil yield and quality applying nonthermal processing. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 15, 891–903. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02788-2

  • AOAC. (2005). Official methods of analysis of AOAC international. Association of official Analytical Chemists (18th ed.). Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA.

  • Batlle, I., & Tous, J. (1997). Carob tree. Ceratonia siliqua L. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy, 92.

  • Benchikh, Y., & Louailèche, H. (2014). Effects of extraction conditions on the recovery of phenolic compounds and in vitro antioxidant activity of carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) pulp. Acta Botanica Gallica, 161(2), 175–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/12538078.2014.909325

  • Benković, M., Radić, K., Vitali Čepo, D., Jaškūnas, E., Janutis, L., Morkunaite, M., & Srečec, S. (2018). Production of cocoa and carob-based drink powders by foam mat drying. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 41(6). https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12825

  • Boublenza, I., Lazouni, H. A., Ghaffari, L., Ruiz, K., Fabiano-Tixier, A. S., & Chemat, F. (2017). Influence of roasting on sensory, antioxidant, aromas, and physicochemical properties of carob pod powder (Ceratonia siliqua L.). Journal of Food Quality. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/4193672

  • Browne, C. A., & Zerban, F. W. (1955). Physical and chemical methods of sugar analysis. Journal of Chemical Education, 73(1–2), 497–512. https://doi.org/10.2533/chimia.2019.96

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cappa, C., Invernizzi, R., Lucisano, M., & Alamprese, C. (2022). Turbo-treatment of rice flour to improve technological functionality. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 15(10), 2344–2353. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02882-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chandrasekara, N., & Shahidi, F. (2011). Effect of roasting on phenolic content and antioxidant activities of whole cashew nuts, kernels, and testa. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59(9), 5006–5014. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf2000772

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Djikeng, F. T., Teyomnou, W. T., Tenyang, N., Tiencheu, B., Morfor, A. T., Touko, B. A. H., et al. (2018). Effect of traditional and oven roasting on the physicochemical properties of fermented cocoa beans. Heliyon, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00533

  • El Bouzdoudi, B., El Ansari, Z. N., Mangalagiu, I., Mantu, D., Badoc, A., & Lamarti, A. (2016). Determination of polyphenols content in carob pulp from wild and domesticated Moroccan trees. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 07(14), 1937–1951. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2016.714177

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eldeeb, G. S. S., & Mosilhey, S. H. (2021). Roasting temperature impact on bioactive compounds and PAHs in Carob powder (Ceratonia siliqua L.). Journal of Food Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-021-04989-7

  • FAOSTAT. (2020). Statistical Database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize 

  • Gholami, Z., & Ansari, S. (2021). Effects of roasting conditions on physicochemical properties of the watermelon seed. Iranian Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, 40(2), 615–626. https://doi.org/10.30492/ijcce.2020.38167

  • Gunel, Z., Torun, M., & Sahin-Nadeem, H. (2019). Sugar, d-pinitol, volatile composition, and antioxidant activity of carob powder roasted by microwave, hot air, and combined microwave/hot air. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 44(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14371

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Javed, M., Belwal, T., Ruyuan, Z., Xu, Y., Li, L., & Luo, Z. (2022). Optimization and mechanism of phytochemicals extraction from Camellia Oleifera shells using novel biosurfactant nanobubbles solution coupled with ultrasonication. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 15, 1101–1114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02793-5

  • Kroh, L. W. (1994). Caramelisation in food and beverages. Food Chemistry, 51(4), 373–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-8146(94)90188-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loullis, A., & Pinakoulaki, E. (2017). Carob as cocoa substitute: A review on composition, health benefits and food applications. European Food Research and Technology, 244(6), 959–977. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-017-3018-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marc, R. A., Niculae, M., Páll, E., Mureșan, V., Mureșan, A., Tanislav, A., et al. (2021). Red oak (Quercus rubra L.) fruits as potential alternative for cocoa powder: Optimization of roasting conditions, antioxidant, and biological properties. Forests, 12(8), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12081088

  • Mekhoukhe, A., Kicher, H., Ladjouzi, A., Medouni-Haroune, L., Brahmi, F., Medouni-Adrar, S., & Madani, K. (2018). Antioxidant activity of carob seeds and chemical composition of their bean gum by- products. Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine, 16(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1515/jcim-2017-0158

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, D. C. (2017). Design and analysis of experiments. Design and Analysis of Experiments (9th ed., Vol. 3). Arizona State: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118147634

  • Nasar-Abbas, S. M., & E-Huma, Z., Vu, T. H., Khan, M. K., Esbenshade, H., & Jayasena, V. (2015). Carob kibble: A bioactive-rich food ingredient. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 15(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12177

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, M., Lu, D., Liu, J., Jiang, B., & Chen, J. (2021). Effect of roasting on the antioxidant activity, phenolic composition, and nutritional quality of pumpkin (cucurbita pepo L.) seeds. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8(March), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.647354

  • Prosky, L., Asp, N.-G., Furda, I., W. DeVries, J., F. Schweizer, T., & F. Harland, B. (1985). Determination of total dietary fiber in foods and food products: Collaborative study. Association of Offical Analytical Chemists, 68(4), 677–679. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/68.4.677

  • Rodrigues, A. S., Pérez-Gregorio, M. R., García-Falcón, M. S., & Simal-Gándara, J. (2009). Effect of curing and cooking on flavonols and anthocyanins in traditional varieties of onion bulbs. Food Research International, 42(9), 1331–1336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2009.04.005

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rojas S, M., Chejne, F., Ciro, H., & Montoya, J. (2020). Roasting impact on the chemical and physical structure of Criollo cocoa variety (Theobroma cacao L). Journal of Food Process Engineering, 43(6). https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13400

  • Román, L., González, A., Espina, T., & Gómez, M. (2017). Degree of roasting of carob flour affecting the properties of gluten-free cakes and cookies. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 54(7), 2094–2103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-017-2649-x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Şahin, H., Topuz, A., Pischetsrieder, M., & Özdemir, F. (2009). Effect of roasting process on phenolic, antioxidant and browning properties of carob powder. European Food Research and Technology, 230(1), 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-009-1152-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sidina, M. M., El Hansali, M., Wahid, N., Ouatmane, A., Boulli, A., & Haddioui, A. (2009). Fruit and seed diversity of domesticated carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) in Morocco. Scientia Horticulturae, 123(1), 110–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2009.07.009

  • Singh, P., Bilyeu, L., & Krishnaswamy, K. (2022). Improving process sustainability by optimizing spray drying parameters: High oleic soymilk using response surface methodology. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 15, 833–851. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-021-02726-8

  • Singleton, V. L., & Rossi, J. A. J. (1965). Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid reagents. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 16, 144–158.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Srour, N., Daroub, H., Toufeili, I., & Olabi, A. (2015). Developing a carob-based milk beverage using different varieties of carob pods and two roasting treatments and assessing their effect on quality characteristics. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 96(9), 3047–3057. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.7476

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sruthi, N. U., Premjit, Y., Pandiselvam, R., Kothakota, A., & Ramesh, S. V. (2021). An overview of conventional and emerging techniques of roasting: Effect on food bioactive signatures. Food Chemistry, 348(January), 129088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129088

  • Tounsi, L., Mkaouar, S., Bredai, S., & Kechaou, N. (2022). Valorization of carob by-product for producing an added value powder: Characterization and incorporation into Halva formulation. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 16, 3957–3966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-022-01494-z

  • Uygun, E., Yildiz, E., Sumnu, G., & Sahin, S. (2020). Microwave pretreatment for the improvement of physicochemical properties of carob flour and rice starch–based electrospun nanofilms. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 13(5), 838–850. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-020-02440-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vitali Čepo, D., Mornar, A., Nigović, B., Kremer, D., Radanović, D., & Vedrina Dragojević, I. (2014). Optimization of roasting conditions as an useful approach for increasing antioxidant activity of carob powder. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 58(2), 578–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.004

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yousif, A. K., & Alghzawi, H. M. (2000). Processing and characterization of carob powder. Food Chemistry, 69(3), 283–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00265-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Ecological and Agro-Industrial Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Technologies, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, BP 523, 23000, Beni Mellal, Morocco

    Aicha Akouz, Aziz Hasib, Hicham Elbatal, Reda Elkacmi & Abdelali Boulli

  2. Department of Agronomical Engineering, Technical University of Cartagena, 30203, Cartagena, Spain

    Juan Pablo Fernández-Trujillo

Authors
  1. Aicha Akouz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Aziz Hasib
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Juan Pablo Fernández-Trujillo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Hicham Elbatal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Reda Elkacmi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Abdelali Boulli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Aicha Akouz designed, performed, and wrote the work; Aziz Hasib supervised the work and revised and approved the version published; Juan Pablo Fernández-Trujillo drafted and critically revised the article; Hicham Elbatal and Reda Elkacmi designed the work, and Abdelali Boulli supervised and approved the published version.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aziz Hasib.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 1241 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Akouz, A., Hasib, A., Fernández-Trujillo, J.P. et al. Optimization of Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Pulp Powder Roasting to Improve Its Quality by Using Central Composite Design. Food Bioprocess Technol 16, 1292–1302 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-02995-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-02995-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation