Abstract
Emissions from household cooking technologies constitute a significant source of household air pollution in developing countries. Household air pollution is estimated to be the leading cause of various health problems and mortality. Studies on household air pollution and health impacts are limited in Kenya. Therefore, this study quantified household particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM10) and carbon monoxide (CO) from different cooking fuels and technologies and modelled their impact on health. A control test was conducted in one kitchen, while the field test was conducted in 42 randomly selected households. Particulate matter and CO monitoring were done using the multifunctional air quality detector EGVOC-180 and a carbon monoxide meter, respectively, for the cooking duration. Simulation of health impacts was done using the AirQ + v 2.1 model. Kitchen PM1, PM2.5, PM10, and CO were observed to be higher for biomass cookstoves (three stone cookstove, improved cookstove (chepkube), ceramic jiko, and sawdust jiko) than for non-biomass cookstoves (kerosene stove, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and electric cooker) during the cooking period. The average maximum PM2.5 concentrations for the cookstoves were three stone (481.2 μg/m3 ± 119.9 μg/m3), improved cookstove (chepkube) (304.3 μg/m3 ± 82.7 μg/m3), ceramic jiko (162.4 μg/m3 ± 40.3 μg/m3), sawdust jiko (273.1 μg/m3 ± 84.9 μg/m3), kerosene stove (80.2 μg/m3 ± 14.3 μg/m3), LPG (36.3 μg/m3 ± 6.5 μg/m3), and electric cooker (29.5 μg/m3 ± 5.6 μg/m3). The AirQ + model results showed that approximately 484 mortality cases due to acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), ischemic heart disease (IHD), and lung cancer could be averted if households switch from biomass cookstoves (three stone) to clean cooking technologies (LPG and electricity).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets used during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request.
References
Adane MM, Alene GD, Mereta ST, Wanyonyi KL (2020) Facilitators and barriers to improved cookstove adoption: a community-based cross-sectional study in Northwest Ethiopia. Environ Health Prev Med 25:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-020-00851-y
Adane MM, Alene GD, Mereta ST (2021) Biomass-fuelled improved cookstove intervention to prevent household air pollution in Northwest Ethiopia: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Environ Health Prev Med 26:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-020-00923-z
Adetona O, Reinhardt TE, Domitrovich J et al (2016) Review of the health effects of wildland fire smoke on wildland firefighters and the public. Inhal Toxicol 28:95–139. https://doi.org/10.3109/08958378.2016.1145771
Adhikari S, Mahapatra PS, Pokheral CP, Puppala SP (2020) Cookstove smoke impact on ambient air quality and probable consequences for human health in rural locations of Southern Nepal. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17:550. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020550
Akagi SK, Yokelson RJ, Wiedinmyer C et al (2011) Emission factors for open and domestic biomass burning for use in atmospheric models. Atmos Chem Phys 11:4039–4072. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-4039-2011
Anenberg S, Kinney P, Newcombe K, et al (2017) Methodology to estimate and verify averted mortality and disability adjusted life years (ADALYs) from cleaner household air. Gold Standard, Australia
Arku RE, Brauer M, Ahmed SH et al (2020) Long-term exposure to outdoor and household air pollution and blood pressure in the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) study. Environ Pollut 262:114197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114197
Assad N, Balmes J, Mehta S et al (2015) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease secondary to household air pollution. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 36:408–421. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1554846
Bartington SE, Bakolis I, Devakumar D et al (2017) Patterns of domestic exposure to carbon monoxide and particulate matter in households using biomass fuel in Janakpur. Nepal Environ Pollut 220:38–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.074
Bruce N, Dherani M, Liu R et al (2015) Does household use of biomass fuel cause lung cancer? A systematic review and evaluation of the evidence for the GBD 2010 study. Thorax 70:433–441. https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2014-206625
Cohen AJ, Brauer M, Burnett R et al (2017) Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. The Lancet 389:1907–1918. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6
Conti GO, Heibati B, Kloog I et al (2017) A review of AirQ Models and their applications for forecasting the air pollution health outcomes. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:6426–6445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-8180-1
de la Sota C, Lumbreras J, Pérez N et al (2018) Indoor air pollution from biomass cookstoves in rural Senegal. Energy Sustain Dev 43:224–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2018.02.002
Esong MB, Goura AP, Mbatchou BHN et al (2021) Distribution of sources of household air pollution: a cross-sectional study in Cameroon. BMC Public Health 21:318. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10350-6
Ghozikali MG, Mosaferi M, Safari GH, Jaafari J (2015) Effect of exposure to O3, NO2, and SO2 on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease hospitalizations in Tabriz, Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:2817–2823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3512-5
Ghozikali MG, Heibati B, Naddafi K et al (2016) Evaluation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) attributed to atmospheric O3, NO2, and SO2 using Air Q Model (2011–2012 year). Environ Res 144:99–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.10.030
Goldemberg J, Martinez-Gomez J, Sagar A, Smith KR (2018) Household air pollution, health, and climate change: cleaning the air. Environ Res Lett 13:030201. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaa49d
Gordon SB, Bruce NG, Grigg J et al (2014) Respiratory risks from household air pollution in low and middle income countries. Lancet Respir Med 2:823–860. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(14)70168-7
Health Effects Institute (2020) State of global air 2020. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation
Hernandez G, Berry T-A, Wallis SL, Poyner D (2017) Temperature and humidity effects on particulate matter concentrations in a sub-tropical climate during winter. In: International Proceedings of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering. p 8
Huang Y, Du W, Chen Y et al (2017) Household air pollution and personal inhalation exposure to particles (TSP/PM2.5/PM1.0/PM0.25) in rural Shanxi, North China. Environ Pollut 231:635–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.08.063
IHME (2020) Global burden of disease study 2019 (GBD 2019) data resources. University of Washington, Washington
Jayarathne T, Stockwell CE, Bhave PV et al (2018) Nepal ambient monitoring and source testing experiment (NAMaSTE): emissions of particulate matter from wood- and dung-fueled cooking fires, garbage and crop residue burning, brick kilns, and other sources. Atmos Chem Phys 18:2259–2286. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-2259-2018
Jayaratne R, Liu X, Thai P et al (2018) The influence of humidity on the performance of a low-cost air particle mass sensor and the effect of atmospheric fog. Atmos Meas Tech 11:4883–4890. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-11-4883-2018
KNBS (2019) 2019 Kenya population and housing census; population by county and sub-county. KNBS
Li C, Zhou Y, Ding L (2021) Effects of long-term household air pollution exposure from solid fuel use on depression: evidence from national longitudinal surveys from 2011 to 2018. Environ Pollut 283:117350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117350
Liao H, Tang X, Wei Y-M (2016) Solid fuel use in rural China and its health effects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 60:900–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.121
Liao J, Kirby MA, Pillarisetti A et al (2021) LPG stove and fuel intervention among pregnant women reduce fine particle air pollution exposures in three countries: pilot results from the HAPIN trial. Environ Pollut 291:118198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118198
Lowden L, Hull T (2013) Flammability behaviour of wood and a review of the methods for its reduction. Fire Sci Rev 2:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-0414-2-4
Majdan M, Svaro M, Bodo J et al (2015) Assessment of the biomass related indoor air pollution in Kwale district in Kenya using short term monitoring. Afr Health Sci 15:972. https://doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v15i3.35
Mbaka CK, Gikonyo J, Kisaka OM (2019) Households’ energy preference and consumption intensity in Kenya. Energy Sustain Soc 2019:9–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-019-0201-8
Miri M, Derakhshan Z, Allahabadi A et al (2016) Mortality and morbidity due to exposure to outdoor air pollution in Mashhad metropolis, Iran. the AirQ Model Approach. Environ Res 151:451–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.039
Mu L, Liu L, Niu R et al (2013) Indoor air pollution and risk of lung cancer among Chinese female non-smokers. Cancer Causes Control 24:439–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-012-0130-8
Muhsin M, Sunilkumar SV, Ratnam MV et al (2016) Diurnal variation of atmospheric stability and turbulence during different seasons in the troposphere and lower stratosphere derived from simultaneous radiosonde observations at two tropical stations, in the Indian Peninsula. Atmos Res 180:12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.04.021
Pilishvili T, Loo JD, Schrag S et al (2016) Effectiveness of six improved cookstoves in reducing household air pollution and their acceptability in rural Western Kenya. PLoS ONE 11:e0165529. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165529
Po JYT, FitzGerald JM, Carlsten C (2011) Respiratory disease associated with solid biomass fuel exposure in rural women and children: systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax 66:232–239. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2010.147884
Pope D, Bruce N, Dherani M et al (2017) Real-life effectiveness of ‘improved’ stoves and clean fuels in reducing PM 2.5 and CO: systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int 101:7–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.012
Quansah R, Semple S, Ochieng CA et al (2017) Effectiveness of interventions to reduce household air pollution and/or improve health in homes using solid fuel in low-and-middle income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int 103:73–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.03.010
Quinn AK, Bruce N, Puzzolo E et al (2018) An analysis of efforts to scale up clean household energy for cooking around the world. Energy Sustain Dev 46:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2018.06.011
Raqib R, Akhtar E, Sultana T et al (2022) Association of household air pollution with cellular and humoral immune responses among women in rural Bangladesh. Environ Pollut 299:118892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.118892
Schilmann A, Riojas-Rodríguez H, Catalán-Vázquez M et al (2019) A follow-up study after an improved cookstove intervention in rural Mexico: estimation of household energy use and chronic PM2.5 exposure. Environ Int 131:105013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105013
Sharma D, Jain S (2019) Impact of intervention of biomass cookstove technologies and kitchen characteristics on indoor air quality and human exposure in rural settings of India. Environ Int 123:240–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.11.059
Shi J, Chen F, Cai Y et al (2017) Validation of a light-scattering PM2.5 sensor monitor based on the long-term gravimetric measurements in field tests. PLOS ONE 12:e0185700. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185700
Snider G, Weagle CL, Murdymootoo KK et al (2016) Variation in global chemical composition of PM2.5: emerging results from SPARTAN. Atmos Chem Phys 16:9629–9653. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-9629-2016
Stockwell CE, Christian TJ, Goetz JD et al (2016) Nepal Ambient Monitoring and Source Testing Experiment (NAMaSTE): emissionsof trace gases and light-absorbing carbon from wood and dung cooking fires, garbage and crop residue burning, brick kilns, and other sources. Atmos Chem Phys 16:11043–11081. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-11043-2016
Thomas E, Wickramasinghe K, Mendis S et al (2015) Improved stove interventions to reduce household air pollution in low and middle income countries: a descriptive systematic review. BMC Public Health 15:650. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-2024-7
Vigolo V, Sallaku R, Testa F (2018) Drivers and barriers to clean cooking: a systematic literature review from a consumer behavior perspective. Sustainability 10:4322. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10114322
Vos T, Lim SS, Abbafati C et al (2020) Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet 396:1204–1222. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30925-9
WHO (2014) WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: household fuel combustion. World Health Organization, Geneva
WHO (2021) World health statistics 2021: monitoring health for the SDGs, sustainable development goals. World Health Organization, Geneva
WHO Regional Office for Europe, European Centre for Environment and Health (2019) AirQ+: software tool for health risk assessment of air pollution
WHO (2022) Household air pollution and health. World Health Organization
Yip F, Christensen B, Sircar K et al (2017) Assessment of traditional and improved stove use on household air pollution and personal exposures in rural western Kenya. Environ Int 99:185–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.11.015
Zhang X, Chen X, Zhang X (2018) The impact of exposure to air pollution on cognitive performance. Proc Natl Acad Sci 115:9193–9197. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1809474115
Funding
This work was supported by the World Bank and the Government of Kenya under the Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture Project.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by [Cohen Ang’u]. The first draft of the manuscript was written by [Cohen Ang’u], and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. The work was supervised by [Nzioka J. Muthama, Mwanthi A. Mututku, and Mutembei H. M’Kiugu]. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
The study in which this work was part of was granted ethical clearance by the University of Nairobi and Kenyatta National Hospital (UoN-KNH) ethics and research committee (Protocol number P34/01/2021, Approval date: 21 May 2021). Written informed consent was sought from all the respondents who participated in this study.
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent to publish
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Ang’u, C., Muthama, N.J., Mutuku, M.A. et al. Household air pollution and its impact on human health: the case of Vihiga County, Kenya. Air Qual Atmos Health 15, 2255–2268 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-022-01249-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-022-01249-1