Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Vegetation bioshield for coastal protection in South Asia: Status and way forward

  • Published:
Journal of Coastal Conservation Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Tsunamis, storm surges, flooding, and erosion pose serious threats to the world's coastal systems, particularly in the tropics. These immediate threats have been accelerated by both natural and man-made factors. The majority of countries have responded to these threats with severe protective measures, exacerbating existing ecosystem problems. To combat this threat, there is an immediate need for sustainable coastal protection measures. Vegetation Bioshields are one such measure to achieve this. This review examines the current state of vegetation bioshields in South Asia, the benefits and drawbacks of their use, and future prospects. Case studies from India and Sri Lanka are used to illustrate the current state of vegetation bioshields. The majority of vegetation bioshield projects were constructed in the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami with inadequate design, maintenance, and follow-up, resulting in an extremely low success rate. Additionally, community participation is limited in a number of vegetation bioshield planting campaigns. A viable alternative to hard structures is the concept of hybrid structures, which combine hard structures with natural ecosystems such as vegetation. A comprehensive inventory of indigenous species and policy changes aimed at their conservation and management are urgently needed. Simultaneously, strict enforcement of environmental laws is required.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achari S, Ambili MS, Deepa P (2018) Irrigation Water Quality And Corrosion Indices Of Groundwater Sources Of Tsunami Affected Alappad Coast, Kollam, Kerala, India. Indian J Sci Res 18:102–108

    Google Scholar 

  • ADB, UN W (2005) India: Post-Tsunami Recovery Program. Preliminary damage and needs assessment

  • Airoldi L, Abbiati M, Beck MW et al (2005) An ecological perspective on the deployment and design of low-crested and other hard coastal defence structures. Coast Eng 52:1073–1087

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ali A, Tanaka N (2020) Experimental study of scouring downstream of coastal vegetation in an inundating tsunami current. Landsc Ecol Eng 16:273–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amarasiri de Silva MW (2009) Ethnicity, politics and inequality: post-tsunami humanitarian aid delivery in Ampara District, Sri Lanka. Disasters 33:253–273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amjad AS, Jusoff K (2007) Mangrove conservation through community participation in Pakistan: the case of Sonmiani Bay. In: The 5th WSEAS International Conference on Environment, Ecosystems and Development (EED’07), Puerto De La Cruz, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain

  • Anderson ME, Smith JM, McKay SK (2011) Wave dissipation by vegetation

  • Arunakumar HS, Suvarna P, Abhijith PA, et al (2019) Effect of emerged coastal vegetation on wave attenuation using open source CFD tool: REEF3D. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference in Ocean Engineering (ICOE2018). Springer, pp 591–603

  • Ayyam V, Palanivel S, Chandrakasan S (2019a) Coastal Ecosystems of the Tropics-Adaptive Management. Springer

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ayyam V, Palanivel S, Chandrakasan S (2019b) Mangroves and Sustainable Development of the Coastal Region. In: Coastal Ecosystems of the Tropics-Adaptive Management. Springer, pp 529–550

  • Beena MJ (2018) Physical Model Studies on the Effect Coastal Vegetation on Wave Attenuation and Run-Up

  • Biswas SR, Mallik AU, Choudhury JK, Nishat A (2009) A unified framework for the restoration of Southeast Asian mangroves—bridging ecology, society and economics. Wetl Ecol Manag 17:365–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Black KP, Baba M, Kurian NP, et al (2017) Climate change adaptation guidelines for coastal protection and management in India. ADB TA-8652 IND

  • Borsje BW, van Wesenbeeck BK, Dekker F et al (2011) How ecological engineering can serve in coastal protection. Ecol Eng 37:113–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broadhead J, Leslie R (2007) Coastal protection in the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami: What role for forests and trees? Rap Publ 7

  • Carugati L, Gatto B, Rastelli E et al (2018) Impact of mangrove forests degradation on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Sci Rep 8:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31683-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chakrabarti A, Chen Q, Smith HD, Liu D (2016) Large eddy simulation of unidirectional and wave flows through vegetation. J Eng Mech 142:4016048

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandrashekara UM (2015) Climate change mitigation strategies in the forestry sector of Kerala, India. Int J Adv Remote Sensing, GIS Geogr 3:29–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang C-W (2017) Wave Attenuation by Coastal Forests. Cornell University

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang CW, Mori N (2021) Green infrastructure for the reduction of coastal disasters: a review of the protective role of coastal forests against tsunami, storm surge, and wind waves. Coast Eng J 00:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/21664250.2021.1929742

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chithambaran S (2019) Restoration of mangrove vegetation at Red Sea coast, Saudi Arabia

  • Costanza R, Anderson SJ, Sutton P et al (2021) The global value of coastal wetlands for storm protection. Glob Environ Chang 70:102328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’ippolito A, Calomino F, Alfonsi G, Lauria A (2021) Flow resistance in open channel due to vegetation at reach scale: A review. Water (Switzerland) 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13020116

  • Dahdouh-Guebas F, Ajonina GN, Amir AA et al (2020) Public perceptions of mangrove forests matter for their conservation. Front Mar Sci 7:901

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalrymple RA, Kirby JT, Hwang PA (1984) Wave diffraction due to areas of energy dissipation. J Waterw port, coastal, Ocean Eng 110:67–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Danielsen F, Sørensen MK, Olwig MF, et al (2005) The Asian tsunami: a protective role for coastal vegetation. Science (80- ) 310:643

  • Das S, Sandhu H (2014) Role of exotic vegetation in coastal protection: An investigation into the ecosystem services of casuarina in Odisha. Econ Polit Wkly:42–50

  • Das S, Vincent JR (2009) Mangroves protected villages and reduced death toll during Indian super cyclone. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106:7357–7360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Costa R, Tanaka N (2021) Role of hybrid structures on the control of tsunami induced Large Driftwood. Coast Eng 163:103798

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dellysse JE, Madurapperuma BD (2018) Developing a Coastal GIS Model of Sri Lanka to Pinpoint Areas at Risk of Tsunamis. IdeaFest Interdiscip J Creat Work Res from Humboldt State Univ 2:7

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Census and Statistics SL (2020) Land Area, Administrative Divisions and Climate. In: Stat. Pocket Book-2020, Sri Lanka. http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Pocket Book/chap01.pdf. Accessed 16 May 2021

  • Diniz C, Cortinhas L, Nerino G et al (2019) Brazilian mangrove status: Three decades of satellite data analysis. Remote Sens 11:808

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dutta S, Hossain MK (2020) Bringing back the Chakaria Sundarbans mangrove forest of South-east Bangladesh through sustainable management approach. Asian J For 4:

  • Erftemeijer PLA, Agastian T, Yamamoto H et al (2020) Mangrove planting on dredged material: three decades of nature-based coastal defence along a causeway in the Arabian Gulf. Mar Freshw Res 71:1062–1072

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erftemeijer PLA, Wylie N, Hooper GJ (2018) Successful mangrove establishment along an artificially created tidal creek at Port Hedland, Western Australia. Mar Freshw Res 69:134–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fathi-Moghadam M, Davoudi L, Motamedi-Nezhad A (2018) Modeling of solitary breaking wave force absorption by coastal trees. Ocean Eng 169:87–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feagin RA, Mukherjee N, Shanker K et al (2010) Shelter from the storm? Use and misuse of coastal vegetation bioshields for managing natural disasters. Conserv Lett 3:1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernando HJS, Samarawickrama SP, Balasubramanian S et al (2008) Effects of porous barriers such as coral reefs on coastal wave propagation. J Hydro-Environment Res 1:187–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jher.2007.12.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernando RLS, Herath H, Rathnayake R (2020) Coastal Conservation in Sri Lanka: Problems and Prospects. In: Development in Coastal Zones and Disaster Management. Springer, pp 9–37

  • Friess DA, Yando ES, Alemu JB, et al (2020) Ecosystem services and disservices of mangrove forests and salt marshes. Oceanogr Mar Biol

  • Gilani H, Naz HI, Arshad M et al (2021) Evaluating mangrove conservation and sustainability through spatiotemporal (1990–2020) mangrove cover change analysis in Pakistan. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 249:107128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL et al (2011) Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 20:154–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonsalves JF, Mohan P (2011) Strengthening resilience in post-disaster situations: Stories, experience and lessons from South Asia. IDRC

  • Gopal B, Chauhan M (2006) Biodiversity and its conservation in the Sundarban mangrove ecosystem. Aquat Sci 68:338–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00027-006-0868-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guannel G, Arkema K, Ruggiero P, Verutes G (2016) The power of three: Coral reefs, seagrasses and mangroves protect coastal regions and increase their resilience. PLoS One 11:1–22. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158094

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta S, Jain I, Johari P, Lal M (2019) Impact of climate change on tropical cyclones frequency and intensity on Indian coasts. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Remote Sensing for Disaster Management. Springer, pp 359–365

  • Gussmann G, Hinkel J (2021) A framework for assessing the potential effectiveness of adaptation policies: Coastal risks and sea-level rise in the Maldives. Environ Sci Policy 115:35–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hadadpour S, Paul M, Oumeraci H (2019) Numerical investigation of wave attenuation by rigid vegetation based on a porous media approach. J Coast Res 92:92–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanley ME, Bouma TJ, Mossman HL (2020) The gathering storm: Optimizing management of coastal ecosystems in the face of a climate-driven threat. Ann Bot 125:197–212. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcz204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harada K (2000) Experimental study on the resistance by mangrove under the unsteady flow. In: Proceedings of the 1st Congress of the Asian and Pacific Coastal Engineering, Dalian, 2000. pp 975–984

  • Hashim AM, Catherine SMP (2013) A laboratory study on wave reduction by mangrove forests. APCBEE procedia 5:27–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heo J, Kim JH, Kim JW (2009) A new methodology for measuring coastline recession using buffering and non-linear least squares estimation. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 23:1165–1177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinkel J, Lincke D, Vafeidis AT et al (2014) Coastal flood damage and adaptation costs under 21st century sea-level rise. Proc Natl Acad Sci 111:3292–3297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoque NN (2020) The Coastal Zone Policy in Bangladesh: An Appraisal. In: Development in Coastal Zones and Disaster Management. Springer, pp 39–47

  • Hossain M, Lin CK, Hussain MZ (2001) Goodbye Chakaria Sunderban: the oldest mangrove forest. Wetl Sci Pract 18:19–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hossain S, Nazmul Alam SM, Kwei Lin C, et al (2004) Integrated management approach for shrimp culture development in the coastal environment of Bangladesh

  • Hu Z (2020) Laboratory Study of Wave Attenuation by Mangrove Forest. arXiv 1–28

  • Husrin S (2013) Attenuation of solitary waves and wave trains by coastal forests

  • Husrin S, Strusińska A, Oumeraci H (2012) Experimental study on tsunami attenuation by mangrove forest. Earth, planets Sp 64:973–989

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram JC, Franco G, Rumbaitis-del Rio C, Khazai B (2006) Post-disaster recovery dilemmas: challenges in balancing short-term and long-term needs for vulnerability reduction. Environ Sci Policy 9:607–613

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Islam SMD-U, Bhuiyan MAH (2018) Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh: causes of degradation and sustainable management options. Environ Sustain 1:113–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ITTO/ISME (2008) Proceedings of the Meeting and Workshop on Guidelines for the Rehabilitation of Mangroves and Other Coastal Forests Damaged by Tsunamis and Other Natural Hazards in the Asia-Pacific Region. In: Chan H., Ong J. (eds)

  • Jaisankar I, Velmurugan A, Swarnam TP (2018) Bioshield: An Answer to Climate Change Impact and Natural Calamities? In: Biodiversity and climate change adaptation in tropical islands. Elsevier, pp 667–698

  • John BM, Shirlal KG, Rao S (2019) Laboratory investigations of wave attenuation by simulated vegetation of varying densities. ISH J Hydraul Eng 25:203–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaleel MIM (2013) Growing scarcity of Mangroves: A study of Pottuvil coastal area in Sri Lanka. Int J Environ Sci 3:2261–2268

    Google Scholar 

  • Kathiresan K (2003) How do mangrove forests induce sedimentation? Rev Biol Trop 51:355–359

    Google Scholar 

  • Kathiresan K, Rajendran N (2005) Coastal mangrove forests mitigated tsunami. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 65:601–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2005.06.022

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khaniya B, Gunathilake MB, Rathnayake U (2021) Ecosystem-Based Adaptation for the Impact of Climate Change and Variation in the Water Management Sector of Sri Lanka. Math Probl Eng 2021:

  • Kobayashi N, Raichle AW, Asano T (1993) Wave attenuation by vegetation. J Waterw port, coastal, Ocean Eng 119:30–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kripa MK, Mudaliar A, Lele N et al (2019) Spatio-Temporal Variations in Mangrove Vegetation in conjunction with Related Environmental Factors in Pichavaram (India): 1996-2016. Int J Sci Res Biol Sci Vol 6:2

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumaravel S, Ranganathan R (2018) Survey of mangroves and their associates in pichavaram mangrove forest. Int J Sci Invent Today

  • Kundur SK (2012) Development of tourism in Maldives. Int J Sci Res Publ 2:1–5

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakshmanan N (2009) Studies on the effect of vegetation on the forces and run-up on structures due to waves

  • Lewis III RR, Brown BM, Flynn LL (2019) Methods and criteria for successful mangrove forest rehabilitation. In: Coastal wetlands. Elsevier, pp 863–887

  • Lynch JC, Meriwether JR, Mckee BA et al (1989) Recent accretion in mangrove ecosystems based on 137 Cs and 210 Pb. Estuaries 12:284–299

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madurapperuma BD, Dellysse JE, Zahir ILM, Iyoob AL (2017) Mapping shoreline vulnerabilities using kite aerial photographs at Oluvil Harbour in Ampara

  • Mahadevia K, Vikas M (2012) Climate Change – Impact on the Sundarbans : Int Sci J 7–15

  • Maza Fernandez ME (2015) Experimental and numerical modelling of flow interaction with natural ecosystems for coastal protection.

  • Maza M, Lara JL, Losada IJ (2021) Predicting the evolution of coastal protection service with mangrove forest age. Coast Eng 168:103922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2021.103922

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazda Y, Magi M, Ikeda Y et al (2006) Wave reduction in a mangrove forest dominated by Sonneratia sp. Wetl Ecol Manag 14:365–378

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazda Y, Magi M, Kogo M, Hong PN (1997) Mangroves as a coastal protection from waves in the Tong King delta, Vietnam. Mangroves Salt Marshes 1:127–135. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009928003700

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGranahan G, Balk D, Anderson B (2007) The rising tide: assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environ Urban 19:17–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mei CC, Chan IC, Liu PLF et al (2011) Long waves through emergent coastal vegetation. J Fluid Mech 687:461–491. https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2011.373

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Memon SH (2012) An overview of mangrove restoration efforts in Pakistan. Shar lessons mangrove Restor 51

  • Mendez FJ, Losada IJ (2004) An empirical model to estimate the propagation of random breaking and nonbreaking waves over vegetation fields. Coast Eng 51:103–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michalzik J, Liebisch S, Schlurmann T (2019) Development of an Outdoor Wave Basin to Conduct Long-Term Model Tests with Real Vegetation for Green Coastal Infrastructures. J Mar Sci Eng 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7010018

  • Mirza MMQ (2011) Climate change, flooding in South Asia and implications. Reg Environ Chang 11:95–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-010-0184-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moberg F, Rönnbäck P (2003) Ecosystem services of the tropical seascape: interactions, substitutions and restoration. Ocean Coast Manag 46:27–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Möller I (2019) Applying uncertain science to nature-based coastal protection: lessons from shallow wetland-dominated shores. Front Environ Sci 7:49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Möller I, Spencer T, French JR et al (1999) Wave transformation over salt marshes: a field and numerical modelling study from North Norfolk, England. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 49:411–426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery JM, Bryan KR, Horstman EM, Mullarney JC (2018) Attenuation of tides and surges by mangroves: Contrasting case studies from New Zealand. Water 10:1119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mukherjee N, Balakrishnan M, Shanker K (2009) Bioshields and ecological restoration in tsunami-affected areas in India. Integr Coast Zo Manag Wiley Blackwell Publ Hoboken, New Jersey 131–134

  • Mukherjee N, Dahdouh-Guebas F, Koedam N, Shanker K (2015) An interdisciplinary framework to evaluate bioshield plantations: Insights from peninsular India. Acta Oecologica 63:91–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mukherjee N, Muthuraman B, Shanker K (2007) Analysis of post-tsunami coastal plantation initiatives of the Forest Department and non-governmental organisations in Tamil Nadu. Rep Ecol Soc impact assessments post-tsunami Mainl India Submitt to United Nations Dev 73–82

  • Mukherjee N, Sridhar A, Menon M, et al (2008) Policy Brief: Bioshields. Bangalore, India UNDP/UNTRS, Chennai ATREE http//www dakshin org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/04/Bioshields_Policy-Brief pdf

  • Mukhopadhyay A, Dasgupta R, Hazra S, Mitra D (2012) Coastal hazards and vulnerability: a review. Int J Geol earth Environ Sci 2:57–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukhtar E, Raynaldo A, Novarino W (2021) Carbon stock mapping using mangrove discrimination indices in Mandeh Bay, West Sumatra. Aquac Aquarium, Conserv Legis 14:430–440

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukhtar I, Hannan A (2012) Constrains on mangrove forests and conservation projects in Pakistan. J Coast Conserv 16:51–62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mury A, Collin A, Houet T et al (2020) Using Multispectral Drone Imagery for Spatially Explicit Modeling of Wave Attenuation through a Salt Marsh Meadow. Drones 4:25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagelkerken I, Blaber SJM, Bouillon S et al (2008) The habitat function of mangroves for terrestrial and marine fauna: A review. Aquat Bot 89:155–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquabot.2007.12.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narayan S, Beck MW, Wilson P et al (2017) The value of coastal wetlands for flood damage reduction in the northeastern USA. Sci Rep 7:1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Natesan U, Parthasarathy A, Vishnunath R et al (2015) Monitoring longterm shoreline changes along Tamil Nadu, India using geospatial techniques. Aquat Procedia 4:325–332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nature-based Solutions - Bangladesh (2021) Coastal afforestation. http://www.nbsbangladesh.info/case_study/coastal-afforestation/. Accessed 29 Aug 2021

  • Navarro A, Young M, Macreadie PI et al (2021) Mangrove and Saltmarsh Distribution Mapping and Land Cover Change Assessment for South-Eastern Australia from 1991 to 2015. Remote Sens 13:1450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nijamir K, Kaleel MIM (2018) Coastal morphodynamics associated natural hazards: a case study of Oluvil area in Ampara district, Sri Lanka. World Sci News 97:113–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Noarayanan L, Murali K, Sundar V (2011) Role of Vegetal Configuration on the Pressures Due to Cnoidal Waves on a Wall. Int J Ocean Clim Syst 2:169–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orissa District Gazetteer C (1996) Gazetteers Unit. Dep Revenue, Gov Orissa, Bhubaneswar

  • Ortolano L, Sánchez-Triana E, Paul T, Ferdausi SA (2016) Managing the Sundarbans region: Opportunities for mutual gain by India and Bangladesh. Int J Environ Sustain Dev 15:16–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osorio AF, Urrego LE (2019) Wave dissipation across a Rhizophora mangrove patch on a Colombian Caribbean Island: An experimental approach. Ecol Eng 130:271–281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozeren Y, Wren DG, Wu W (2014) Experimental investigation of wave attenuation through model and live vegetation. J Waterw Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng 140:4014019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parkinson RW, DeLaune RD, White JR (1994) Holocene sea-level rise and the fate of mangrove forests within the wider Caribbean region. J Coast Res 10:1077–1086

    Google Scholar 

  • Priyashantha AKH, Taufikurahman T (2020) Mangroves of Sri Lanka: Distribution, status and conservation requirements. Trop PLANT Res 7:654–668

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rafique M (2018) A review on the status, ecological importance, vulnerabilities, and conservation strategies for the Mangrove ecosystems of Pakistan. Pak J Bot 50:1645–1659

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragavan P, Kathiresan K, Mohan PM, et al (2020) Ensuring the adaptive potential of Coastal wetlands of India-the need of the hour for sustainable management. Wetl Ecol Manag 1–12

  • Rahayu SM, Andini AS (2020) Study of tsunami mitigation based on vegetation in serenting beach, mandalika special economic zone, lombok island. Int J Res 8:60–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman A, Shaw R (2017) Fragile Mangroves and Increasing Susceptibility to Coastal Hazards in Pakistan. In: Participatory Mangrove Management in a Changing Climate. Springer, pp 17–30

  • Rahman MM, Mahmud MA (2018) Economic feasibility of mangrove restoration in the Southeastern Coast of Bangladesh. Ocean Coast Manag 161:211–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman N, Billah MM, Chaudhury MU (1979) Prepoaration of an up to date map of Sundarban forests and estimation of forest areas of the same by using Landsat imageries. In: Second Bangladesh National Seminar on Remote Sensing (9–15 December), Dhaka

  • Rasheed KAA, Das VK, Revichandran C et al (2006) Tsunami impacts on morphology of beaches along south Kerala coast, west coast of India. Sci Tsunami Hazards 24:24–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Rinos MHM (2014) Geo-Information Technology in Disaster Management: A Case Study in Akkaraipattu Municipal Area

  • Riyas Ahamed AM (2017) Coastal bio-shields in Ampara district, Sri Lanka: evaluation of greenbelt plantation

  • Romañach SS, DeAngelis DL, Koh HL et al (2018) Conservation and restoration of mangroves: Global status, perspectives, and prognosis. Ocean Coast Manag 154:72–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saleem A, Nileysha A (2011) Characteristics, status and need for conservation of mangrove ecosystems in the Republic of Maldives, Indian Ocean. J Natl Sci Found Sri Lanka 31:

  • Sandilyan S, Kathiresan K (2012) Mangrove conservation: A global perspective. Biodivers Conserv 21:3523–3542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-012-0388-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanyal P (1983) Mangrove tiger land, the Sundarbans of India. Tigerpaper (FAO/RAPA)

  • Sarathchandra C, Kambach S, Ariyarathna SC et al (2018) Significance of mangrove biodiversity conservation in fishery production and living conditions of coastal communities in Sri Lanka. Diversity 10:20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schinko T, Drouet L, Vrontisi Z et al (2020) Economy-wide effects of coastal flooding due to sea level rise: a multi-model simultaneous treatment of mitigation, adaptation, and residual impacts. Environ Res Commun 2:15002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Secretariat AD (2020) Population of Akkaraipattu. In: Div. Stat. Data. http://www.akkaraipattu.ds.gov.lk/index.php/en/statistical-information.html. Accessed 29 Jul 2021

  • Selvam V, Ravichandaran KK, Karunakaran VM, et al (2010) Pichavaram mangrove wetlands: situation analysis. MS Swaminathan Res Found India

  • Selvam V, Ravichandran KK, Gnanappazham L, Navamuniyammal M (2003) Assessment of community-based restoration of Pichavaram mangrove wetland using remote sensing data. Curr Sci 794–798

  • Selvam V, Ravishankar T, Karunagaran VM, et al (2005) Toolkit for establishing coastal bioshield

  • Selvan SC, Kankara RS, Prabhu K, Rajan B (2020) Shoreline change along Kerala, south-west coast of India, using geo-spatial techniques and field measurement. Nat Hazards 100:17–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqui PJA, Farooq S, Shafique S, Farooqi Z (2008) Conservation and management of biodiversity in Pakistan through the establishment of marine protected areas. Ocean Coast Manag 51:377–382

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silva R, Oumeraci H, Martínez ML et al (2021) Ten Commandments for Sustainable, Safe, and W/Healthy Sandy Coasts Facing Global Change. Front Mar Sci 8:126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sivakumar K, Rilwan A, Priyanka K et al (2018) Mangroves of the atolls of the Maldives, rich among the atoll groups of the Indian Ocean. ISME/GLOMIS Electron J 16:11–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Soltanpour M, Ranji Z, Shibayama T, Ghader S (2021) Tropical Cyclones in the Arabian Sea: overview and simulation of winds and storm-induced waves. Nat Hazards 1–22

  • Sreelekshmi S, Veettil BK, Nandan SB, Harikrishnan M (2020) Mangrove forests along the coastline of Kerala, southern India: Current status and future prospects. Reg Stud Mar Sci 101573

  • Stevens GMW, Froman N (2019) The Maldives archipelago. In: World seas: an environmental evaluation. Elsevier, pp 211–236

  • Stoesser T, Kim SJ, Diplas P (2010) Turbulent flow through idealized emergent vegetation. J Hydraul Eng 136:1003–1017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strusinska-Correia A, Husrin S, Oumeraci H (2014) Attenuation of solitary wave by parameterized flexible mangrove models. Coast Eng Proc 13

  • Suzuki T (2011) Wave dissipation over vegetation fields.

  • Suzuki T, Hu Z, Kumada K et al (2019) Non-hydrostatic modeling of drag, inertia and porous effects in wave propagation over dense vegetation fields. Coast Eng 149:49–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka N (2012) Effectiveness and Limitations of Coastal Forest in Large Tsunami: Conditions of Japanese Pine Trees on Coastal Sand Dunes in Tsunami Caused By Great East Japan Earthquake. J Japan Soc Civ Eng Ser B1 (Hydraulic Eng 68:II_7-II_15. doi: 10.2208/jscejhe.68.ii_7

  • Tanaka N (2011) Effectiveness and limitations of vegetation bioshield in coast for tsunami disaster mitigation. InTech

  • Tanaka N, Nandasena NAK, Jinadasa KBSN et al (2009) Developing effective vegetation bioshield for tsunami protection. Civ Eng Environ Syst 26:163–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286600802435850

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka N, Sasaki Y, Mowjood MIM et al (2006) Coastal vegetation structures and their functions in tsunami protection: experience of the recent Indian Ocean tsunami. Landsc Ecol Eng 3:33–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka S, Istiyanto DC, Kuribayashi D (2010) Planning and Design of Tsunami-mitigative Coastal Vegetation Belts. International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management under the auspices …

  • Techera EJ, Cannell-Lunn M (2019) A review of environmental law in Maldives with respect to conservation, biodiversity, fisheries and tourism. Asia Pacific J Environ Law 22:228–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas K V, Kurian NP, Hameed TSS, et al (2013) Shoreline management plan for selected location along Kerala coast. Rep Submitt to ICMAM Proj Dir MoES Cent Earth Sci Stud Thiruvananthapuram 308:

  • Thuy NB, Tanaka N, Tanimoto K (2012) Tsunami mitigation by coastal vegetation considering the effect of tree breaking. J Coast Conserv 16:111–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thuy NB, Tanimoto K, Tanaka N et al (2009) Effect of open gap in coastal forest on tsunami run-up—investigations by experiment and numerical simulation. Ocean Eng 36:1258–1269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torita H, Masaka K, Tanaka N et al (2021) Assessment of the effect of thinning on the resistance of Pinus thunbergii Parlat. trees in mature coastal forests to tsunami fluid forces. J Environ Manage 284:111969

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unicef (2005) Restoring water and sanitation in hard-hit Ampara province

  • Van Rijn LC (1989) Handbook sediment transport by currents and waves. Delft Hydraulics Laboratory

  • van Wesenbeeck BK, Wolters G, Antolínez JAA, et al (2021) Woods versus waves: Wave attenuation through non-uniform forests under extreme conditions

  • Veettil BK, Quang NX, Thu Trang NT (2019) Changes in mangrove vegetation, aquaculture and paddy cultivation in the Mekong Delta: A study from Ben Tre Province, southern Vietnam. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 226:106273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2019.106273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veettil BK, Ward RD, Dung NTK et al (2021) The use of bioshields for coastal protection in Vietnam: Current status and potential. Reg Stud Mar Sci 47:101945

    Google Scholar 

  • Volvaiker S, Vethamony P, Bhaskaran P et al (2018) Wave energy dissipation in the mangrove vegetation off Mumbai. India. Ocean Sci Discuss:1–18. https://doi.org/10.5194/os-2018-24

  • Wang C, Jian S, Ren H et al (2021) A web-based software platform for restoration-oriented species selection based on plant functional traits. Front Ecol Evol 9:122

    Google Scholar 

  • Wayne CJ (1976) The effects of sea and marsh grass on wave energy. Coast Res Notes 4:6–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Yin Z, Wang Y, Yang X (2019) Regular wave run-up attenuation on a slope by emergent rigid vegetation. J Coast Res 35:711–718

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Yang Y, Yang K et al (2020) Non-linear wave attenuation quantification model improves the estimation of wave attenuation efficiency of mangroves. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 245:106927

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors sincerely thank MHRD, the Government of India, for the financial support. The authors are thankful to the Director, National Institute of Technology Calicut, India, and Head, Department of Civil Engineering for providing the opportunity to conduct present research. Fieldwork support given by Sachin Ramesh V V and Alla Naveen Kumar is duly acknowledged. The authors would also like to thank Dr. Prabhakaran MP for his support in identifying vegetation species.

Availability of data and material

The high-resolution Alos Palsar DEM were obtained from the Alaska Satellite Facility (https://search.asf.alaska.edu), Sentinel-2 satellite data from the Copernicus Open Access Hub (https://scihub.copernicus.eu/).

Code availability

Not Applicable

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Calicut, India

    Paul Thomas Athikalam & Anand Karur Vaideeswaran

Authors
  1. Paul Thomas Athikalam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anand Karur Vaideeswaran
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul Thomas Athikalam.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interest/Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Athikalam, P.T., Karur Vaideeswaran, A. Vegetation bioshield for coastal protection in South Asia: Status and way forward. J Coast Conserv 26, 3 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11852-022-00850-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11852-022-00850-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation