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Wearable and Implantable Light-Emitting Diodes and Their Biomedical Applications

  • Review Article (invited only)
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Abstract

Light-mediated healthcare, including monitoring and therapy techniques, has evolved significantly over the past decades, owing to their advantages in minimal invasiveness and relatively low side effects. However, most of the clinically available light sources have suffered from their bulky size and rigidity, making them impractical for continuous on-body-type health monitoring and treatment applications. Recently, wearable and implantable healthcare systems using deformable light emitting diodes (LEDs) have been developed, which can be seamlessly integrated to any part of the body and exhibit the potential to improve efficacy of personalized and mobile photo-medicine. In this review, we discuss recent advances in wearable and implantable LED technologies for various biomedical applications. First, we present an overview of the state-of-the-art high-performance wearable and implantable LEDs, especially focusing on their light-emitting materials and unique device design approaches. We also discuss strategies for integrated light-based healthcare systems. Then, we discuss prominent examples of light-medicated sensing and therapeutic applications, whose accuracy and efficacy can be enhanced by wearable and implantable LEDs, ranging from non-invasive oxygen level sensing to various phototherapies. Finally, we conclude this review with a brief outlook on the future technologies.

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Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [97], Copyright 2010, Springer Nature. b Stretchable μ-LED array with a omnidirectionally printed conductive ink for its interconnection (left), SEM image of out-of-plane-printed conductive ink (upper right), and stretching of device (lower right). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [106], Copyright 2023, Springer Nature. (ii) Ultrathin OLEDs with high flexibility. c Device structure of ultrathin OLED (left), and its application to wearable patch for skin wound healing. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [108], Copyright 2020, Wiley–VCH GmbH. d Inorganic–organic hybrid thin film barrier. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [xx], Copyright 2018, Springer Nature. e Structural engineering for efficient strain management, based on neutral mechanical plane. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [111], Copyright 2023, Wiley–VCH GmbH. (iii) Intrinsically stretchable OLEDs. f Device structure of intrinsically stretchable OLED. g Optical images of device stretching. h Application to wearable light sources for real-time heartbeat display. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [119], Copyright 2022, Springer Nature

Fig. 3

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [123], Copyright 2009, Wiley–VCH GmbH. d Optical images of H-shaped waveguides composed of biodegradable polymers dissolved after soaking into phosphate-buffered saline solution. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [162], Copyright 2016, Springer Nature. e Optical image (left) and schematic illustration (right) of the hydrogel fiber including cells for optogenetics. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [125], Copyright 2013, Springer Nature. f Optical image of multifunctional fiber. g Schematic illustration of multifunctional fiber implanted into tumor tissues for immunotherapeutics delivery and tumor impedance measurement. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [127], Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. (ii) Upconversion nanoparticles. h Schematic illustration of the operating mechanisms of upconversion nanoparticle. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [128], Copyright 2009, Wiley–VCH GmbH. (i) Various excitation/emission wavelengths depending on the type of upconversion nanoparticles. j Microscopic images of green light (left) and near infrared light (right) propagation in tissue with upconversion nanoparticles. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [129], Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society

Fig. 4

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [132], Copyright 2019, Springer Nature. b Optical image of the device components in head-mounted configuration. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [133], Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. c Schematic illustration of soft and flexible fiber connected to wearable battery. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [134], Copyright 2017, Elsevier. d Optical image of the scalable head-mounted configuration including battery. (ii) Battery-free system. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [133], Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. e Schematic illustration of the energy harvesting system implanted into the mouse brain. f Optical image of the flexible and wireless energy harvester. g Optical image of the wireless energy harvester implanted into the rat brain. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [160], Copyright 2015, Springer Nature. h Schematic illustrations of the midfield powering coupled enhances power transmission depth and intensity. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [141], Copyright 2014, National Academy of Science. (iii) Wirelessly rechargeable battery-powered system. i Schematic illustration of the wirelessly rechargeable battery-powered system implanted into the brain. j Schematic exploded view of the wirelessly rechargeable battery-powered system. k Schematic illustration of the stable wireless power transmission scenario. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [142], Copyright 2021, Springer Nature

Fig. 5

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [145], Copyright 2016, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (ii) Implantable optoelectronic system for local tissue oximetry. d Implantable miniaturized optoelectronic system for local tissue oximetry. e Schematic illustration of the device implanted on femoral artery and veins of mouse (left), and oxygenation level of the local tissue (right). f Schematic illustration of the device implanted on deep brain region of mouse (left), and oxygenation level of the brain region (right). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [147], Copyright 2019, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)

Fig. 6

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [151], Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. e Optical images of the emitted light with various wavelengths from stacked OLEDs according to the combination of OLEDs. (ii) Implantable photodynamic therapy. f Schematic illustration of the implantable optoelectronic system for wireless photodynamic therapy. g Optical image of the implanted light-emitting system on the tumor tissue. h Relative tumor volume change of experimental groups after photodynamic therapy. i Histopathological images of the tumor tissues after treatment in experimental groups. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [153], Copyright 2019, Springer Nature

Fig. 7

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [156], Copyright 2022, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (ii) Implantable photobiomodulation therapy. g Schematic exploded view of the OLED catheter. h Optical image of the OLED catheter. i Schematic illustrations of the OLED catheter implanted in duodenum of the rat. j Measured and simulated spectral intensity of the emitted light from OLED catheter. k Optical image of the OLED catheter implanted in duodenum of the rat. l Relative change in blood glucose level of rats after photobiomodulation using OLED catheter. m Histopathological images of the livers showing collagen deposition in control group (top) and experimental group (bottom). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [157], Copyright 2023, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)

Fig. 8

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [163], Copyright 2013, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). b Optical images of the injectable micro-LED device. Inset shows the connection with wireless power system. c Schematic exploded view of the injectable micro-LED device. d Optical images of the device emitting lights with wavelengths of 675 and 450 nm (top left and top right) and concurrently (bottom left). This device could also emit light with wavelength of 530 nm by coating of fluorescein. e Optical images of the lightweight micro-LED system (left) and conventional rigid light-emitting system (right) implanted into the mouse brain. f Heat maps of mouse activity reflecting the positional preference. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [159], Copyright 2023, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (ii) Wireless miniaturized system for optogenetics. g Schematic illustration of the implantable, miniaturized optoelectronic system implanted onto the sciatic nerve of the rat. h Schematic illustration of the wireless optical stimulation on sciatic nerve using the system. i Place aversion of the mice after optical stimulation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [160], Copyright 2015, Springer Nature. (iii) Wireless closed-loop system for optogenetics. j Schematic illustration of the wireless, closed-loop optoelectronic system implanted on the bladder. Inset shows the optical image of the system. k Optical images of the system seamlessly applied on the surface of the bladder with contracted state (left) and expanded state (right). l Voiding patterns from rats according to genetic modification. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [161], Copyright 2019, Springer Nature

Fig. 9

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Gachon University research fund of 2023 (GCU-202300980001). This research was further supported by Institute for Basic Science (IBS-R006-A1).

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  1. Department of Systems Biotechnology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, Republic of Korea

    Gi Doo Cha

  2. Center for Nanoparticle Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea

    Dae-Hyeong Kim

  3. School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea

    Dae-Hyeong Kim

  4. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea

    Dae-Hyeong Kim

  5. Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Gachon University, Gyeonggi-do, 13120, Republic of Korea

    Dong Chan Kim

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Cha, G.D., Kim, DH. & Kim, D.C. Wearable and Implantable Light-Emitting Diodes and Their Biomedical Applications. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 41, 1–24 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-023-00006-z

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