Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Impact of ShotSpotter Technology on Firearm Homicides and Arrests Among Large Metropolitan Counties: a Longitudinal Analysis, 1999–2016

  • Published:
Journal of Urban Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Over the past decade, large urban counties have implemented ShotSpotter, a gun fire detection technology, across the USA. It uses acoustic listening devices to identify discharged firearms’ locations. We examined the effect of ShotSpotter with a pooled, cross-sectional time-series analysis within the 68 large metropolitan counties in the USA from 1999 to 2016. We identified ShotSpotter implementation years through publicly available media. We used a Poisson distribution to model the impact of ShotSpotter on firearm homicides, murder arrests, and weapons arrests. ShotSpotter did not display protective effects for all outcomes. Counties in states with permit-to-purchase firearm laws saw a 15% reduction in firearm homicide incidence rates; counties in states with right-to-carry laws saw a 21% increase in firearm homicide incidence rates. Results suggest that implementing ShotSpotter technology has no significant impact on firearm-related homicides or arrest outcomes. Policy solutions may represent a more cost-effective measure to reduce urban firearm violence.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Large central metropolitan counties are defined as “…counties in MSA of 1 million population that: 1) contain the entire population of the largest principal city of the MSA, or 2) are completely contained within the largest principal city of the MSA, or 3) contain at least 250,000 residents of any principal city in the MSA.” [29]

  2. We also ran the analysis without interpolated values, and the results are the same.

References

  1. Kegler SR, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA. Firearm homicides and suicides in major metropolitan areas — United States, 2012–2013 and 2015–2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67(44):1233–7. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6744a3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. CDC. WISQARS - fatal injury and violence data. Published 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/fatal.html. Accessed 8 July 2019.

  3. CDC. WISQARS cost of injury module. Published 2014. https://wisqars.cdc.gov:8443/costT/cost_Part1_Finished.jsp. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  4. A More Complete Picture: The Contours of Gun Injury in the United States - EverytownResearch.org. https://everytownresearch.org/a-more-complete-picture-the-contours-of-gun-injury-in-the-united-states/. Accessed 11 May 2020.

  5. A State-by-State Examination of the Economic Costs of Gun Violence. U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee. 2019:56. https://www.jec.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/b2ee3158-aff4-4563-8c3b-0183ba4a8135/economic-costs-of-gun-violence.pdf.

  6. Carr JB. The geography, incidence, and underreporting of gun violence: new evidence using ShotSpotter data. SSRN Journal. Published online 2016. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2770506.

  7. Irvin-Erickson Y, Bai B, Gurvis A, Mohr E. The effect of gun violence on local economies. Urban Institute. Published November 3, 2016. https://www.urban.org/research/publication/effect-gun-violence-local-economies. Accessed 11 May 2020.

  8. Thompson PS, Lawrence DS, Vigne NGL. Securing Officer Buy‐in When a Beneficial Technology Increases Workload: Best Practices for Implementing Gunshot Detection Technology. ACJS Today. 2020;46(1):8; Web Access: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340362318_Securing_Officer_Buyin_When_a_Beneficial_Technology_Increases_Workload_Best_Practices_for_Implementing_Gunshot_Detection_Technology.

  9. Home. ShotSpotter. https://www.shotspotter.com/. Accessed 13 April 2020.

  10. Goldenberg A, Rattigan D, Dalton M, et al. Use of ShotSpotter detection technology decreases prehospital time for patients sustaining gunshot wounds. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2019;87(6):1253–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0000000000002483.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Choi K-S, Librett M, Collins TJ. An empirical evaluation: gunshot detection system and its effectiveness on police practices. Police Pract Res. 2014;15(1):48–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2013.800671.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Lawrence DS, Vigne NGL, Goff M, Thompson PS. Lessons Learned Implementing Gunshot Detection Technology: Results of a Process Evaluation in Three Major Cities. Justic Evaluation Journal. 2018;1(2):109–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/24751979.2018.1548254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Mazerolle LG, Watkins C, Rogan D, Frank J. Random gunfire problems and gunshot detection systems: (523332006-001). Published online. 1999; https://doi.org/10.1037/e523332006-001.

  14. ShotSpotter. ShotSpotter frequently asked questions. Published January 2018. https://www.shotspotter.com/system/content-uploads/SST_FAQ_January_2018.pdf. Accessed 7 July 2020.

  15. Vella V. Gunshot detection system will soon cover all of Hartford. courant.com. https://www.courant.com/community/hartford/hc-hartford-shotspotter-expansion-20160328-story.html. Accessed 7 July 2020.

  16. Mares D, Blackburn E. Evaluating the effectiveness of an acoustic gunshot location system in St. Louis, MO. Policing. 2012;6:26–42. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/par056.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Ratcliffe J, Lattanzio H, Kikuchi M, Thomas G. A partially randomized field experiment on the effect of an acoustic gunshot detection system on police incident reports. J Exp Criminol. 2019;15(1):67–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Crifasi CK, Merrill-Francis M, McCourt A, Vernick JS, Wintemute GJ, Webster DW. Association between Firearm Laws and Homicide in Urban Counties. J Urban Health. 2018;95(3):383–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-018-0273-3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Crifasi CK, Meyers JS, Vernick JS, Webster DW. Effects of changes in permit-to-purchase handgun laws in Connecticut and Missouri on suicide rates. Prev Med. 2015;79:43–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.07.013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Rudolph KE, Stuart EA, Vernick JS, Webster DW. Association between Connecticut’s permit-to-purchase handgun law and homicides. Am J Public Health. 2015;105(8):e49–54. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302703.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Siegel M, Xuan Z, Ross CS, et al. Easiness of legal access to concealed firearm permits and homicide rates in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2017;107(12):1923–9. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.304057.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Doucette ML, Crifasi CK, Frattaroli S. Right-to-carry laws and firearm workplace homicides: a longitudinal analysis (1992–2017). Am J Public Health. 2019;109(12):1747–53. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305307.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Humphreys DK, Gasparrini A, Wiebe DJ. Evaluating the impact of Florida’s “stand your ground” Self-defense law on homicide and suicide by firearm: an interrupted time series study. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(1):44. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.6811.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Wintemute GJ, Wright MA, Drake CM, Beaumont JJ. Subsequent criminal activity among violent misdemeanants who seek to purchase handguns: risk factors and effectiveness of denying handgun purchase. JAMA. 2001;285(8):1019. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.8.1019.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Zeoli AM, McCourt A, Buggs S, Frattaroli S, Lilley D, Webster DW. Analysis of the strength of legal firearms restrictions for perpetrators of domestic violence and their associations with intimate partner homicide. Am J Epidemiol. 2018;187(11):2365–71. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Results. ShotSpotter. https://www.shotspotter.com/results/. Accessed 14 April 2020.

  27. Gordon S. Milwaukee committed to ShotSpotter but outcomes, data remain elusive. Wisconsin Public Radio. Published May 10, 2016. https://www.wpr.org/milwaukee-committed-shotspotter-outcomes-data-remain-elusive. Accessed 7 July 2020.

  28. Uniform Crime Reporting Program Data Series. https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/NACJD/series/57?q=county. Accessed 7 July 2020.

  29. Data Access - Urban Rural Classification Scheme for Counties. Published December 2, 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data_access/urban_rural.htm. Accessed 7 July 2020.

  30. Cities. ShotSpotter. https://www.shotspotter.com/cities/. Accessed 8 July 2020.

  31. U.S. Census Bureau. Small area income and poverty estimates. https://www.census.gov/data-tools/demo/saipe/#/?map_geoSelector=aa_c&map_yearSelector=2018&s_year=2018,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017. Accessed 7 April 2020.

  32. Hemenway D, Azrael D, Conner A, Miller M. Variation in rates of fatal police shootings across US States: the role of firearm availability. J Urban Health. 2019;96(1):63–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-018-0313-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Cherney S, Morral AR, Schell TL. Development of the RAND state firearm law database and supporting materials. 2019. https://www.rand.org/pubs/tools/TL283-1.html.

  34. Solon G, Haider SJ, Woolridge JM. What are we weighting for? J Hum Resour. 2015;50(2):301–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. StataCorp. Stata Statistical Software: Release 15: College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC; 2017.

  36. Donohue JJ, Aneja A, Weber KD. Right-to-carry laws and violent crime: a comprehensive assessment using panel data and a state-level synthetic control analysis. J Empir Leg Stud. 2019;16(2):198–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/jels.12219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Webster DW, Vernick JS, Bulzacchelli MT. Effects of state-level firearm seller accountability policies on firearm trafficking. J Urban Health. 2009;86(4):525–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-009-9351-x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Webster D, Crifasi CK, Vernick JS. Effects of the repeal of Missouri’s Handgun purchaser licensing law on homicides. J Urban Health. 2014;91(2):293–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-014-9865-8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Rowhani-Rahbar A, Azrael D, Lyons VH, Simonetti JA, Miller M. Loaded handgun carrying among US adults, 2015. Am J Public Health. 2017;107(12):1930–6. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.304072.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. King J. “ShotSpotter” tracks down glendale gunshot; turns out to be some teen-ager firing gun in his backyard. Phoenix New Times. Published October 15, 2009. https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/shotspotter-tracks-down-glendale-gunshot-turns-out-to-be-some-teen-ager-firing-gun-in-his-backyard-6647445. Accessed 7 July 2020.

  41. Kane W. Oakland cops aim to scrap gunfire-detecting ShotSpotter. SFGate. Published March 14, 2014. https://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Oakland-cops-aim-to-scrap-gunfire-detecting-5316060.php. Accessed 7 July 2020.

  42. Sacramento Police Department. 2015 annual report. 2015. https://www.cityofsacramento.org/-/media/Corporate/Files/Police/About-SPD/Annual-Reports/ar15.pdf?la=en. Accessed 7 July 2020.

  43. Winkley L. San Diego police unveil gunshot detection system. The San Diego Union-Tribune. https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/public-safety/sd-me-shot-spotter-20161122-story.html. Published November 22, 2016. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  44. Morrison C. ShotSpotter’s sonic silver bullet for fighting crime. CNN Money. https://money.cnn.com/2009/11/09/smallbusiness/ear_for_crime.fsb/index.htm. Published November 9, 2009. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  45. Shots fired in Hartford: 2012 - Present. Hartford Courant. https://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-hartford-gunshots-2012-present-htmlstory.html. Published December 20, 2018. Accessed July 14, 2020.

  46. ShotSpotter Gun Shots. Open Data DC. Published July 5, 2020. https://opendata.dc.gov/items/89bfd2aed9a142249225a638448a5276. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  47. ShotSpotter announces expansion to seven New U.S. Cities: Leading gunfire detection solution now live in Cincinnati, Jacksonville, Louisville, Newburgh, Pittsfield, Syracuse and St. Louis County. NASDAQ OMX. https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2017/09/19/1124828/0/en/ShotSpotter-Announces-Expansion-to-Seven-New-U-S-Cities.html. Published September 19, 2017. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  48. Frago C. St. Petersburg’s mayor, police chief promised dashboard cameras, but City Council hits the brakes. Tampa Bay Times. https://www.tampabay.com/news/localgovernment/st-petersburgs-mayor-police-chief-promised-dashboard-cameras-but-city/2324472/. Published May 19, 2017. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  49. ShotSpotter Offers Strategies to Prevent New Year’s Eve Celebratory Gunfire. Business wire. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20141211005181/en/ShotSpotter-Offers-Strategies-Prevent-Year%E2%80%99s-Eve-Celebratory. Published December 11, 2014. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  50. Stevens A. Were those gunshots? New technology lets Atlanta police know instantly. The Atlanta Journal - Constitution. https://www.ajc.com/news/crime%2D%2Dlaw/atlanta-police-using-100-new-devices-that-detect-gunshots/LsQxrW9FxbM02DR8vXdFdJ/. Published November 16, 2018. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  51. Chicago Police Department. ShotSpotter Flex Program. Chicago Police Department. 2012. http://directives.chicagopolice.org/directives/data/a7a57b38-1397dedb-3e613-97de-ddb576e7f407f2a0.html. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  52. Prudente T. Baltimore’s new gunshot detection system hears four shootings in first night. The Baltimore Sun. https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/crime/bs-md-ci-shotspotter-20180601-story.html. Published June 1, 2018. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  53. Handy D. Surveillance technology helps Boston Police find location of gunfire. WBUR. https://www.wbur.org/news/2011/12/23/shotspotter. Published December 23, 2011. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  54. Coleman N. ShotSpotter is here, Minneapolis, but it’s not going to save the day. Star Tribune. https://search.proquest.com/docview/427853758/4D0BE6F93A724FE4PQ/2?accountid=11752. Published 32 2007. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  55. Kansas City Deploys ShotSpotter Gunfire Location, Alert & Analysis Service. Professional services close-up. https://ir.shotspotter.com/press-releases/detail/82/kansas-city-mo-announces-use-of-shotspotter-gunfire. Published May 11, 2012. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  56. Vegas police begin testing acoustic gunshot detection system. AP. https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/vegas-police-begin-testing-acoustic-gunshot-detection-system/. Published November 17, 2017. Accessed July 14, 2020.

  57. Jackson D. Newark deploys gunshot-location system. Mobile Radio Technology. 2008;26(6). https://urgentcomm.com/2008/05/01/newark-n-j-deploys-shotspotter-system/. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  58. Bruner B. One month after ShotSpotter went live, system paying dividends. The Columbus Dispatch. https://www.dispatch.com/news/20190316/one-month-after-shotspotter-went-live-system-paying-dividends. Published March 16, 2019. Accessed 14 July 2020.

  59. ShotSpotter adds six new cities in second half 2014; Now in more than 90 cities to help deter illegal urban gunfire. Business Wire. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20150128005224/en/ShotSpotter-Adds-New-Cities-2014-90-Cities. Published January 28, 2015. Accessed 14 July 2020.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The Authors have no funding to report.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Gun Policy and Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 624 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA

    Mitchell L. Doucette

  2. Injury Prevention Center, Connecticut Children’s Medical Center, Hartford, CT, USA

    Mitchell L. Doucette

  3. Injury Prevention Center, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, CT, USA

    Christa Green

  4. Department of Public Policy, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA

    Jennifer Necci Dineen & Kerri M. Raissian

  5. Saint Francis Hospital & Medical Center, Hartford, CT, USA

    David Shapiro

Authors
  1. Mitchell L. Doucette
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Christa Green
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jennifer Necci Dineen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. David Shapiro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Kerri M. Raissian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mitchell L. Doucette.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Doucette, M.L., Green, C., Necci Dineen, J. et al. Impact of ShotSpotter Technology on Firearm Homicides and Arrests Among Large Metropolitan Counties: a Longitudinal Analysis, 1999–2016. J Urban Health 98, 609–621 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-021-00515-4

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-021-00515-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation