Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Coupling phytotoxicity and human health risk assessment to refine the soil quality standard for As in farmlands

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In the present study, a field experiment was conducted to investigate arsenic (As) concentrations in soils and in grains of 15 rice varieties in a contaminated site in Taiwan. The studied site was divided into two experimental units, namely plot A and plot B. The results showed that mean total As concentrations were 70.94 and 61.80 mg kg−1 in plot A and plot B, respectively, and thus greater than or approximate to the soil quality standard for total As in Taiwan (60 mg kg−1). The As levels in rhizosphere soil in plot A (19.71–32.33 mg kg−1) were much higher than in plot B (6.41–8.60 mg kg−1); however, As accumulation in brown rice did not significantly differ between the plots. These results implied that a significant variation in the bioconcentration factor (BCF) value of As existed among different rice genotypes, and a negative correlation was observed between BCF value and rhizosphere As level in the soil. In phytotoxicity, the median values of the ecological risk indicator were 104.85 and 103.89 in plot A and plot B, respectively, indicating considerable risk. In human health risk assessment, the median and 97.5%-tile values for cancer risk for both male and female residents were markedly higher than the acceptable risk (1 × 10−4). Furthermore, non-cancer and cancer risks were higher for males than females, mainly due to the greater rice ingestion rate of males. Sensitivity analysis showed that total As concentration in soil was the main factor affecting health risks, suggesting that priority should be given to the reduction of soil As levels. To better manage the phytotoxicity of As on rice, as well as the health risk to residents resulting from exposure to As-contaminated soils, the soil quality standard for As in farmland soils should be set between 5 and 10 mg kg−1. The methodology developed in this study could also be applied to provide the basis for refining and revising the soil quality standard for heavy metals in farmland in other regions and countries.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Materials availability

The data used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

References

  • Abedin MJ, Feldmann J, Meharg AA (2002) Uptake kinetics of arsenic species in rice plants. Plant Physiol 128:1120–1128

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alexakis DE (2020) Suburban areas in flame: dispersion of potentially toxic elements from burned vegetation and buildings. Estimation of the associated ecological and human health risk. Environ Res 183:109153

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alexakis D, Gamvroula D (2014) Arsenic, chromium, and other potentially toxic elements in the rocks and sediments of Oropos-Kalamos basin, Attica. Greece Appl Environ Soil Sci 2014:718534

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexakis DE, Bathrellos GD, Skilodimou HD, Gamvroula DE (2021) Spatial distribution and evaluation of arsenic and zinc content in the soil of a karst landscape. Sustainability 13:6976

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Azam SMGG, Sarker TC, Naz S (2016) Factors affecting the soil arsenic bioavailability, accumulation in rice and risk to human health: a review. Toxicol Mech Methods 26:565–579

    Google Scholar 

  • Barcelos DA, Pontes FVM, da Silva F, Castro DC, dos Anjos N, Castilhos ZC (2020) Gold mining tailing: environmental availability of metals and human health risk assessment. J Hazard Mater 397:122721

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bradham KD, Diamond GL, Burgess M, Juhasz A, Klotzbach JM, Maddaloni M, Nelson C, Scheckel K, Serda SM, Stifelman M, Thomas DJ (2018) In vivo and in vitro methods for evaluating soil arsenic bioavailability: relevant to human health risk assessment. J Toxicol Environ Health B 21:83–114

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carey AM, Scheckel KG, Lombi E, Newville M, Choi Y, Norton GJ, Charnock JM, Feldmann J, Price AH, Meharg AA (2010) Grain uploading of arsenic species in rice. Plant Physiol 152:309–319

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang TK, Shyu GS, Lin YP, Chang NC (1999) Geostatistical analysis of soil arsenic content in Taiwan. Environ Sci Health A 34:1485–1501

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen HL, Lee CC, Huang WJ, Huang HT, Wu YC, Hsu YC, Kao YT (2016) Arsenic speciation in rice and risk assessment of inorganic arsenic in Taiwan population. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:4481–4488

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chi Y, Li F, Tam NF, Liu C, Ouyang Y, Qi X, Li WC, Ye Z (2018) Variation in grain cadmium and arsenic concentrations and screening for stable low-accumulating rice cultivars from multi-environment trials. Sci Total Environ 643:1314–1324

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • dos Santos LMG, Barata-Silva C, Neto SAV, Magalhães CD, Moreira JC, Jacob SC (2021) Analysis and risk assessment of arsenic in rice from different regions of Brazil. J Food Compos Anal 99:103853

    Google Scholar 

  • Du F, Yang Z, Liu P, Wang L (2019) Bioaccessibility and variation of arsenic species in polished rice grains by an in vitro physiologically based extraction test method. Food Chem 293:1–7

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duan G, Shao G, Tang Z, Chen H, Wang B, Tang Z, Yang Y, Liu Y, Zhao FJ (2017) Genotypic and environmental variations in grain cadmium and arsenic concentrations among a panel of high yielding rice cultivars. Rice 10:9

    Google Scholar 

  • EPA-TW (2011) Soil pollution control standards. EPA Order Huan-Shu-Tu-Tzu No. 1000008495. Environmental Protection Administration, Executive Yuan, Taiwan

  • Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2022) National food consumption database 2019. Food and Drug Administration, Taipei, Taiwan

  • Gao J, Ye X, Wang X, Jiang Y, Li D, Ma Y, Sun B (2021) Derivation and validation of thresholds of cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury and arsenic for safe rice production in paddy soil. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 220:112404

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo J, Zhang Y, Liu W, Zhao J, Yu S, Jia H, Zhang C, Li Y (2022) Incorporating in vitro bioaccessibility into human health risk assessment of heavy metals and metalloid (As) in soil and pak choi (Brassica chinensis L.) from greenhouse vegetable production fields in a megacity in Northwest China. Food Chem 373:131488

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hakanson L (1980) An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control:asedimentological approach. Water Res 14:975–1001

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang X, Luo D, Zhao D, Li N, Xiao T, Liu J, Wei L, Liu Y, Liu L, Liu G (2019) Distribution, source and risk assessment of heavy metal(oid)s in water, sediments, and Corbicula fluminea of Xijiang river, China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16:1823

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Islam S, Rahman MM, Islam MR, Naidu R (2016) Arsenic accumulation in rice: consequences of rice genotypes and management practices to reduce human health risk. Environ Int 96:139–155

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Islam S, Rahman MM, Duan L, Islam MR, Kuchel T, Naidu R (2017) Variation in arsenic bioavailability in rice genotypes using swine model: an animal study. Sci Total Environ 599–600:324–331

    Google Scholar 

  • Juang KW, Chu LJ, Syu CH, Chen BC (2021) Assessing human health risk of arsenic for rice consumption by an iron plaque based partition ratio model. Sci Total Environ 763:142973

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Juhasz AL, Smith E, Weber J, Rees M, Rofe A, Kuchel T, Sansom L, Naidu R (2006) In vivo assessment of arsenic bioavailability in rice and its significance for human health risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 114:1826–1831

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khanam R, Kulsum PGPS, Mandal B, Hazra GC, Kundu D (2022) The mechanistic pathways of arsenic transport in rice cultivars: soil to mouth. Environ Res 204:111942

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumarathilaka P, Seneweera S, Meharg A, Bundschuh J (2018) Arsenic accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa L.) is influenced by environment and genetic factors. Sci Total Environ 642:485–496

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laparra JM, Vélez D, Barbera R, Farré R, Montoro R (2005) Bioavailability of inorganic arsenic in cooked rice: practical aspects for human health risk assessments. J Agric Food Chem 53:8829–8833

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li HB, Li J, Zhao D, Li C, Wang XJ, Sun HJ, Juhasz AL, Ma LQ (2017) Arsenic relative bioavailability in rice using a mouse arsenic urinary excretion bioassay and its application to assess human health risk. Environ Sci Technol 51:4689–4696

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Chen S, Li H, Liu X, Cheng J, Ma LQ (2021) Arsenic bioaccessibility in rice grains via modified physiologically-based extraction test (MPBET): correlation with mineral elements and comparison with As relative bioavailability. Environ Res 198:111198

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liao YJ, Syu CH, Lee DY (2021) Comparison of As accumulation and speciation in water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.) grown in As-elevated soils under flooding versus upland conditions. J Hazard Mater 415:125711

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu WJ, Zhu YG, Smith FA, Smith SE (2004) Do iron plaque and genotypes affect arsenate uptake and translocation by rice seedlings (Oryza sativa L.) grown in solution culture? J Exp Bot 55:1707–1713

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu B, Ai S, Zhang W, Huang D, Zhang Y (2017) Assessment of the bioavailability, bioaccessibility and transfer of heavy metals in the soil-grain-human systems near a mining and smelting area in NW China. Sci Total Environ 609:822–829

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenzana RM, Yeow AY, Colman JT, Chappell LL, Choudhury H (2009) Arsenic in seafood: speciation issues for human health risk assessment. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 15:185–200

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lü Q, Xiao Q, Guo Y, Wang Y, Cai L, You W, Zheng X, Lin R (2022) Pollution monitoring, risk assessment and target remediation of heavy metals in rice from a five-year investigation in Western Fujian region, China. J Hazard Mater 424:127551

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma JF, Yamaji N, Mitani N, Xu XY, Su YH, McGrath SP, Zhao FJ (2008) Transporters of arsenite in rice and their role in arsenic accumulation in rice grain. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105:9931–9935

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ma L, Yang Z, Kong Q, Wang L (2017) Extraction and determination of arsenic species in leafy vegetables: method development and application. Food Chem 217:524–530

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Majumder S, Banik P (2019) Geographic variation of arsenic distribution in paddy soil, rice and rice-based products: a meta-analytic approach and implications to human health. J Environ Manage 233:184–199

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Milliken GA, Shi X, Mendicinom M, Vasudev PK (1998) Strip-plot design for two-step processes. Qual Reliab Engng Int 14:197–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Health and Welfare (MHW) (2022) Statistics of general health and welfare 2018. Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taipei, Taiwan

  • Mridha D, Gorain PC, Joardar M, Das A, Majumder S, De A, Chowdhury NR, Lama U, Pal R, Roychowdhury T (2022) Rice grain arsenic and nutritional content during post harvesting to cooking: a review on arsenic bioavailability and bioaccessibility in humans. Food Res Int 154:111042

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito S, Matsumoto E, Shindoh K, Nishimura T (2015) Effects of polishing, cooking, and storing on total arsenic and arsenic species concentrations in rice cultivated in Japan. Food Chem 168:294–301

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Narukawa T, Hioki A, Chiba K (2011) Speciation and monitoring test for inorganic arsenic in white rice flour. J Agri Food Chem 60:1122–1127

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohno K, Yanase T, Matsuo Y, Kimura T, Hamidur Rahman M, Magara Y, Matsui Y (2007) Arsenic intake via water and food by a population living in an arsenic-affected area of Bangladesh. Sci Total Environ 381:68–76

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Omar NA, Praveena SM, Aris AZ, Hashim Z (2015) Health risk assessment using in vitro digestion model in assessing bioavailability of heavy metal in rice: a preliminary study. Food Chem 188:46–50

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Painecur P, Muñoz A, Tume P, Melipichun T, Ferraro FX, Roca N, Bech J (2022) Distribution of potentially harmful elements in attic dust from the city of Coronel (Chile). Environ Geochem Health 44:1377–1386

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Sirvent C, García-Lorenzo ML, Martínez-Sánchez MJ, Navarro MC, Marimón J, Bech J (2007) Metal-contaminated soil remediation by using sludges of the marble industry: toxicological evaluation. Environ Int 33:502–504

  • Prabagar S, Dharmadasa RM, Lintha A, Thuraisingam S, Prabagar J (2021) Accumulation of heavy metals in grape fruit, leaves, soil and water: a study of influential factors and evaluating ecological risks in Jaffna. Sri Lanka Environ Sustain Indicat 12:100147

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasheed H, Slack R, Kay P (2016) Human health risk assessment for arsenic: a critical review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 46:1529–1583

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samal AC, Bhattacharya P, Biswas P, Maity JP, Bundschuh J, Santra SC (2021) Variety-specific arsenic accumulation in 44 different rice cultivars (O. sativa L.) and human health risks due to co-exposure of arsenic-contaminated rice and drinking water. J Hazard Mater 407:124804

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandoval MA, Fuentes R, Thiam A, Salazar R (2021) Arsenic and fluoride removal by electrocoagulation process: a general review. Sci Total Environ 753:142108

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sarwar T, Khan S, Muhammad S, Amin S (2021) Arsenic speciation, mechanisms, and factors affecting rice uptake and potential human health risk:asystematic review. Environ Technol Innov 22:101392

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharafi K, Nodehi RN, Mahvi AH, Pirsaheb M, Nazmara S, Mahmoudi B, Yunesian M (2019) Bioaccessibility analysis of toxic metals in consumed rice through an in vitro human digestion model- comparison of calculated human health risk from raw, cooked and digested rice. Food Chem 299:125126

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sun GX, Williams PN, Carey AM, Zhu YG, Deacon C, Raab A, Feldmann J, Islam RM, Meharg AA (2008) Inorganic arsenic in rice bran and its products are an order of magnitude higher than in bulk grain. Environ Sci Technol 42:7542–7546

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Syu CH, Lee CH, Jiang PY, Chen MK, Lee DY (2014) Comparison of As sequestration in iron plaque and uptake by different genotypes of rice plants grown in As-contaminated paddy soils. Plant Soil 374:411–422

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (1992) Framework for ecological risk assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC, USA

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2002) Supplemental guidance for developing soil screening levels for superfund sites. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC, USA

  • Wang L, Gao S, Yin X, Yu X, Luan L (2019) Arsenic accumulation, distribution and source analysis of rice in a typical growing area in north China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 167:429–434

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang X, Liu T, Li F, Li B, Liu C (2018) Effects of simultaneous application of ferrous iron and nitrate on arsenic accumulation in rice grown in contaminated paddy soil. ACS Earth Space Chem 2:103–111

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang P, Yin N, Cai X, Du H, Fu Y, Geng Z, Sultana S, Sun G, Cui Y (2021) Assessment of arsenic distribution, bioaccessibility and speciation in rice utilizing continuous extraction and in vitro digestion. Food Chem 346:128969

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu C, Ye Z, Shu W, Zhu Y, Wong M (2011) Arsenic accumulation and speciation in rice are affected by root aeration and variation of genotypes. J Exp Bot 62:2889–2898

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xiao R, Guo D, Ali A, Mi S, Liu T, Ren C, Li R, Zhang Z (2019) Accumulation, ecological-health risks assessment, and source apportionment of heavy metals in paddy soils: a case study in Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China. Environ Pollut 248:349–357

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yager JW, Greene T, Schoof RA (2015) Arsenic relative bioavailability from diet and airborne exposure. Implications for risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 536:368–381

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yao BM, Chen P, Zhang HM, Sun GX (2021) A predictive model for arsenic accumulation in rice grains based on bioavailable arsenic and soil characteristics. J Hazard Mater 412:125131

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zavala YJ, Gerads R, Gürleyük H, Duxbury JM (2008) Arsenic in rice: II. Arsenic speciation in US grain and implications for human health. Environ Sci Technol 42:3861–3866

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang H, Zhang F, Song J, Tan ML, Kung H, Johnson VC (2021) Pollutant source, ecological and human health risks assessment of heavy metals in soils from coal mining areas in Xinjiang. China Environ Res 202:111702

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou Z, Yang G, Xun P, Wang Q, Shao K (2021) Bioaccessibility of inorganic arsenic in rice: probabilistic estimation and identification of influencing factors.https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.1970762

  • Zhuang P, Zhang C, Li Y, Zou B, Mo H, Wu K, Wu J, Li Z (2016) Assessment of influences of cooking on cadmium and arsenic bioaccessibility in rice, using an in vitro physiologically-based extraction test. Food Chem 213:206–214

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This research was financially supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, under grant nos. MOST 108–2313-B-343–001-MY3 and MOST 111–2313-B-343–001.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Agronomy, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan

    Kai-Wei Juang & Li-Jia Chu

  2. Department of Natural Biotechnology, Nanhua University, 622 No. 55, Sec. 1, Nanhua Rd., Dalin Township, Chiayi, Taiwan

    Li-Jia Chu & Bo-Ching Chen

  3. Agricultural Chemistry Division, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, Taichung, Taiwan

    Chien-Hui Syu

Authors
  1. Kai-Wei Juang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Li-Jia Chu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Chien-Hui Syu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Bo-Ching Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Conceptualization: Kai-Wei Juang and Bo-Ching Chen; methodology: Bo-Ching Chen; formal analysis: Bo-Ching Chen; investigation: Kai-Wei Juang, Li-Jia Chu, and Chien-Hui Syu; resources and data curation: Li-Jia Chu and Chien-Hui Syu; software: Kai-Wei Juang and Li-Jia Chu; writing—original draft preparation: Bo-Ching Chen; writing—review and editing: Bo-Ching Chen; supervision and funding acquisition: Bo-Ching Chen.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bo-Ching Chen.

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval

The authors confirm that the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) guidelines have been adhered to in the submission of this manuscript.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

The authors all agree to the publication of this journal. No other consents for publication were required.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Kitae Baek

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Juang, KW., Chu, LJ., Syu, CH. et al. Coupling phytotoxicity and human health risk assessment to refine the soil quality standard for As in farmlands. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 38212–38225 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-25011-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-25011-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation