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Occurrence of chemical pollutants in major e-waste sites in West Africa and usefulness of cytotoxicity and induction of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) in determining the effects of some detected brominated flame retardants and e-waste soil-derived extracts

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Abstract

We investigated the occurrence of chemical pollutants in major e-waste sites in West Africa and usefulness of cytotoxicity and induction of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) in determining the effects of some detected brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and e-waste soil-derived extracts. Analysis of the e-waste site samples using AAS and GC-MS techniques revealed the presence of a range of toxic metals as well as persistent and toxic organic pollutants, respectively, in the vicinity of the e-waste sites. As expected, the occurrence (%) of all the detected chemical pollutants in experimental soils significantly (P < 0.05) differs from occurrence (%) in control soil. The calculated LC50 values on RBL-2H3 cells of the detected tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) were 3.75 μM and 4.2 μM, respectively. Tribromophenol (TBP), dibromobiphenyl (DBB), and decabromodiphenyl ether (DBDE) were remarkably less toxic on RBL-2H3 cells compared with TBBPA and HBCD as they did not reduce RBL-2H3 cell viability below 50% in the tested concentration range (0–20 μM). The study revealed that TBBPA and HBCD could induce significant RBL-2H3 cell death through caspase-dependent apoptosis. The study further shows that the cytotoxicity of some of these BFRs could increase synergistically when in mixtures and potentially activate inflammation through the stimulation of mast cell degranulation. The e-waste soil-derived extracts induced a concentration-dependent increase in EROD activity in the exposed RTG-W1 cells. Ultimately, nonpolar extracts had higher EROD-inducing potency compared with polar extracts and hence suggesting the presence in higher amounts of AhR agonists in nonpolar e-waste soil-derived extracts than polar extracts. Overall, there is urgent need for actions in order to improve the environmental quality of the e-waste sites.

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Data availability

The datasets analyzed during this study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgments

A pre-doctoral fellowship by Tetfund is acknowledged by Chukwuebuka Eze.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biochemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria

    Chukwuebuka ThankGod Eze & Omodele Ibraheem

  2. Department of Biological Sciences, University of Chester, Chester, UK

    Francesco Michelangeli

  3. Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos State, Nigeria

    Chukwuebuka ThankGod Eze & Adebayo Akeem Otitoloju

  4. Department of Biochemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Campus, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria

    Obianuju Oluchukwu Eze

  5. Centre for Environmental Management and Control, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria

    Emeka Bright Ogbuene

  6. Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria

    Germaine Akinola Ogunwole

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  1. Chukwuebuka ThankGod Eze
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  2. Francesco Michelangeli
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  3. Adebayo Akeem Otitoloju
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  4. Obianuju Oluchukwu Eze
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  5. Omodele Ibraheem
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  7. Germaine Akinola Ogunwole
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Contributions

Chukwuebuka ThankGod Eze, Francesco Michelangeli, and Adebayo Akeem Otitoloju designed the study. Chukwuebuka ThankGod Eze, Francesco Michelangeli, Adebayo Akeem Otitoloju, and Obianuju Oluchukwu Eze performed the research. Chukwuebuka ThankGod Eze, Francesco Michelangeli, Obianuju Oluchukwu Eze, Ibraheem Omodele, Emeka Bright Ogbuene, and Germaine Akinola Ogunwole analyzed the data. Chukwuebuka ThankGod Eze, Francesco Michelangeli, Adebayo Akeem Otitoloju, and Obianuju Oluchukwu Eze wrote the paper. Ibraheem Omodele, Emeka Bright Ogbuene, and Germaine Akinola Ogunwole contributed in performing the research and writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Chukwuebuka ThankGod Eze.

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Eze, C.T., Michelangeli, F., Otitoloju, A.A. et al. Occurrence of chemical pollutants in major e-waste sites in West Africa and usefulness of cytotoxicity and induction of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) in determining the effects of some detected brominated flame retardants and e-waste soil-derived extracts. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 10832–10846 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11155-7

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