Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Health risk analysis of volcanic SO2 hazard on Vulcano Island (Italy)

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Natural Hazards Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Since the last eruption of the Fossa crater in 1888–1890, intense volcanic degassing has been remaining on Vulcano Island of Sicily (Italy). Toxic sulfur dioxide (SO2) of the solfataric action in this area represents, when inhaled, a permanent natural hazard harming humans. Approximately 500 permanent residents live and 15,000 tourists visit during the summer time the Porto village in the North of Vulcano Island. A cross-disciplinary fuzzy logic risk assessment has been conducted to evaluate health risks of human individuals exposed to higher SO2-concentrations C over certain exposure times t. The simple approach, based on fuzzy set theory, explains health risks semantically by words rather than by numbers. Advantages of this approach are, first, experts, non-experts, decision makers, or the public are able to understand and communicate risk degrees by words without using numbers. Second, in comparison to other risk definitions, the risk is not equal to the vulnerability; it is based on the hazard (SO2-gas clouds) and vulnerability (health effects) in combination. Third, risk levels can be still estimated even when limited or no statistical information is available, e.g., high SO2-concentrations or long exposure times. Moreover, human health risks were determined for C−t-scenarios based on threshold values of the European Union and the World Health Organization. Independently, two additional methods were used to determine the proportions of the population who are exposed to levels of SO2 at which health effects may be expected and also safety zones for civil protection around the degassing fields. In conclusion, SO2-gas concentrations in many parts of Vulcano Island go beyond the proclaimed alert threshold of the European Union and the World Health Organization. For example, the results show that sensitive individuals, such as asthmatics, young children, or elderly people, should not be exposed at any time to the degassing areas in Porto di Levante and at the NE-rim of the Fossa crater. In contrast, healthy non-sensitive individuals should be exposed less than 10 min to the SO2-clouds at these degassing areas, while hiking on the crater rim.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • AICE (1989) Guidelines for chemical process quantitative risk analysis, American Institute of Chemical Engineers. Center for Chemical Process Safety, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Amdur MO, Melvin WW, Drinker P (1953) Effects of inhalation of sulphur dioxide by man. Lancet 2:758–759

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersen I, Lundqvist GJ, Jensen PL (1974) Human response to controlled levels of sulfur dioxide. Arch Environ Health 28:31–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Amdur MO, Doull J, Klaassen C (1991) Casarett and Doull’s toxicology: the basic sciences of poisons, 4th edn. Pergamon Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • ATSDR (1998) Toxological profile for sulfur dioxide. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Division of Toxicology, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • Badalamenti B, Gurrieri S, Nuccio PM, Velenza M (1991) Gas hazard on Vulcano Island. Nature 350:26–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baubron JC, Allard P, Toutain JP (1990) Diffuse volcanic emissions of carbon dioxide from Vulcano Island, Italy. Nature 344:51–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bethel RA, Sheppard D, Geffroy B (1985) Effects of 0.25 ppm sulfur dioxide on airway resistance in freely breathing, heavily exercising, asthmatic subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis 13(1):659–661

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaikie P, Cannon T, Davis I, Wisner B (1994) At risk: natural hazards, peoples vulnerability, and disasters. London, Routledge

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruno N, Caltaniano T, Grasso MF, Porto M, Romano R (1994) SO2 flux COSPEC measurements (Vulcano). Acta Vulcanol 6:32

    Google Scholar 

  • Bukumirovic T, Italiano F, Nuccio PM (1997) Evolucione della attivita di esalazione fumarolica al cratere di Fossa di Vulcano, in Progetto Vulcano, Felici Ed Pisa:70–77

  • Ellenhorn MJ, Barceloux DG (1988) Medical toxicology: diagnosis and treatment of human poisoning. Elsevier Science Publishing Co. Inc., New York, pp 874–875

    Google Scholar 

  • EU (1999) Council Directive 1999/30/EC of 22 April 1999 relating to limit values for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter and lead in ambient air. Eur Union Official J L163:41–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Faivre-Pierret R, Le Guen F (1983) Health risks with inhalation of volcanic gases and aerosols. In: Tazieff H, Sabroux JC (eds) Forecasting volcanic events. Elsevier, pp 69–81

  • Frank NR, Amdur MO, Worcester J (1962) Effects of acute controlled exposure to sulfur dioxide on respiratory mechanics in healthy male adults. J Appl Physiol 17:252–258

    Google Scholar 

  • Graziani G, Martilli A, Pareschi MT, Valenza M (1997) Atmospheric dispersion of natural gases at Vulcano island. J Volcanol Geothermal Res 75:283–308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris AJL and Stevenson DS (1997) Thermal observations of degassing open conduits and fumaroles at Stromboli and Vulcano using remotely sensed data. J Volcanol Geothermal Res 76:175–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HSDB (1998) Hazardous substances data bank. National Library of Medicine, National Toxicology Information Program, Bethesda, MD, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Huber AL, Loving TJ (1991) Fatal asthma attack after inhaling sulfur fumes. JAMA 266(16): 2225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IAEA (1993) Manual for the Classification and Prioritization of Risks due to Major Accidents in Process and Related Industries, International Atomic Energy Agency, LAEA-TECDOC-727, Vienna

  • IAEA (1998) Guidelines for integrated risk assessment and management in large industrial areas, International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA-TECDOC-994, Vienna

  • Islam MS, Neuhann HF, Grzegowski E (1992) Bronchomotoric effect of low concentration of sulfur dioxide in young healthy volunteers. Fresenius Euvir Bull II:541–546

    Google Scholar 

  • Italiano F, Nuccio PM (1992) Volcanic steam output directly measured in fumaroles: the observed variations at Vulcano Island, Italy, between 1983 and 1987. Bull Vulcano 54:623–630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jorres R, Magnussen H (1990) Airway response of asthmatics after a 30 min exposure at resting ventilation, to 0.25 ppm NO, or 0.5 ppm sulfur dioxide. Eur Respir J 3:132–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Koenig JQ, Covert DS, Hanley QS (1990) Prior exposure to ozone potentiates subsequent responses to sulfur dioxide in adolescent asthmatic subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis 141:377–380

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawther PJ, Macfarlane AJ, Waller RE (1975) Pulmonary function and sulfur dioxide, some preliminary findings. Environ Res 10:355–367

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linn WS, Avol EL, Shamoo DA (1984) Asthmatics’ responses to 6-hr sulfur dioxide exposures on two successive days. Arch Environ Health 39:313–319

    Google Scholar 

  • Linn WS, Shamoo DA, Spier CE (1983) Respiratory effects of 0.75 ppm sulfur dioxide in exercising asthmatics: Influence of upper respiratory defenses. Environ Res 30:340–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazumdar S, Schimmel H, Higgins ITT (1982) Relation of daily mortality to air pollution: an analysis of 14 London winters, 1958/59–1971/72. Arch Environ Health 37:213–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers DJ, Bigby BG, Boushey HA (1986a) The inhibition of sulfur dioxide-induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatic subjects by cromolyn is dose dependent. Am Rev Respir Dis 133:1150–l 153

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers DJ, Bigby BG, Calvayrac P (1986b) Interaction of cromolyn and a muscarinic antagonist in inhibiting bronchial reactivity to sulfur dioxide and to eucapnic hyperpnea alone. Am Rev Respir Dis 133:1154–1158

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadel JA, Salem H, Tamplin B (1965) Mechanism of bronchoconstriction during inhalation of sulfur dioxide. J Appl Physiol 20:164–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Pareschi MT, Ranci M, Valenza M, Graziani G (1999) The assessment of volcanic gas hazard by means of numerical models: an example from Vulcano Island (Sicily). Geophys Res Lett 26(10):1405–1408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pareschi MT, Ranci M, Valenza M, Graziani G (2001) Atmospheric dispersion of volcanic CO 2 at Vulcano island. J Volcanol Geothermal Res 108:219–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roger LJ, Kehrl HR, Hazucha M (1985) Bronchoconstriction in asthmatics exposed to sulfur dioxide during repeated exercise. J Appl Physiol 59:L784–L791

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandstrom T, Stjernberg N, Andersson MC (1989a) Cell response in bronchioalveolar lavage fluid after exposure to sulfur dioxide: a time-response study. Am Rev Respir Dis 140:1828–1831

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandstrom T, Stjernberg N, Andersson MC (1989b) Is the short term limit value for sulphur dioxide exposure safe? Effects of controlled chamber exposure investigated with bronchoalveolar lavage. Br J Ind Med 461:200–203

    Google Scholar 

  • Schachter EN, Witek TJ, Beck GJ (1984) Airway effects of low concentrations of sulfur dioxide: dose-response characteristics. Arch Environ Health 39:34–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheppard D, Wong WS, Uehara CF (1980) Lower threshold and greater bronchomotor responsiveness of asthmatic subjects to sulfur dioxide. Am Rev Respir Dis 122:873–878

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheppard D, Saisho A, Nadel JA (1981) Exercise increases sulfur dioxide-induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatic subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis 123:486–491

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheppard D, Epstein J, Bethel RA (1983) Tolerance to sulfur dioxide-induced bronchoconstriction in subjects with asthma. Environ Res 30:412–419

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spix C, Heinrich J, Dockey D, Schwartz J, Volksch G, Schwinkowski K, Collen C, Wichmann HE (1993) Air pollution and daily mortality in Erfurt, East Germany, 1980–1989. Environ Health Perspect 101:518–526

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • TNO (1989) Methods for the determination of possible damage: to people and objects resulting from the releases of hazardous materials. Rep. CPR-16E (“The Green Book”), Committee for the Prevention of Disasters caused by Dangerous Substances, Voorburg

  • UNDRO (1980) Natural disasters and vulnerability analysis, Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Co-ordinator, Report of Expert Group Meeting (9–12 July 1979), United Nations, Geneva, 49 pp

  • UNESCO (1972) Report of consultive meeting of experts on the statistical study of natural hazards and their consequences, UNESCO, Document SC/WS/500, p 11

  • U.S. EPA (1994a) National Air Pollutant Emission Trends (1900–1993). Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards

  • U.S. EPA (1994b) Review of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Sulfur Oxides: Assessment of Scientific and Technical Information. Supplement to the 1986 OAQPS Staff Paper Addendum (Final Report). Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards

  • U.S. EPA (2005), Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities (HHRAP), EPA520-R-05-006, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response

  • WHO (1979) Environmental health criteria 8: sulfur oxides and suspended particulate matter. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2000) Air quality guidelines for Europe, 2nd edn. World Health Organization Regional Publications, European Series, No. 91, Copenhagen

  • Wolff RK (1986) Effects of airborne pollutants on mucociliary clearance. Environ Health Perspect 661:223–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zadeh LA (1965) Fuzzy sets. In: Yager et al (eds) 1987. Information Control 8:338–353

  • Zadeh LA (1975a) The concept of a linguistic variable and its application to approximate reasoning FI. Information Sci 8:199–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zadeh LA (1975b) The concept of a linguistic variable and its application to approximate reasoning FII. Information Sci 8:301–357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zadeh LA (1978) Fuzzy sets as a basis for a theory of possibility. Fuzzy Sets Syst 1:3–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zadeh LA (1979) A theory of approximate reasoning. In: Hayes JE, Michie D, Mikulich LI (eds) Machine intelligence. Halstead Press, New York, pp 149–194

    Google Scholar 

  • Zadeh IA, Kacprzyk J, Zadeh LA (2006) Computing with words in information/intelligent systems 1: Foundations, 1st edn. Springer, Berlin, pp 517

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

The author is grateful to C. Annen, who provided chemical monitoring data as part of her Master Thesis (Fumerolles et champs fumerolliens de L'lile de Vulcano, iles eoliennes, Italie, Institute of Earth Sciences at University of Geneva, Switzerland, 1992). He also expresses his gratitude to the German Science Foundation (DFG), which had partially funded this study by a small research grant (KL 1833/2). The study was conducted in association with the University of Geneva, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne, UNU and UNESCO.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Hazards & Risk Research, Columbia University, 101 SGT, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, NY, 10964, USA

    Christian D. Klose

Authors
  1. Christian D. Klose
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christian D. Klose.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Klose, C.D. Health risk analysis of volcanic SO2 hazard on Vulcano Island (Italy). Nat Hazards 43, 303–317 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-007-9115-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-007-9115-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation