Abstract
Background
Osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease are common diseases encountered globally, especially with advancing age. Osteoporosis occurs when there is a loss of bone mineral density leading to increased predisposition to fragility fracture. The conventional perception of osteoporosis is purely as a metabolic bone disease. However, there are mounting reports from recent studies that osteoporosis could be seen as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease just like other traditional risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidaemia and diabetes. This is a paradigm shift with regards to the outlook of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease have similar risk factors, including diabetes, smoking, excess alcohol, sedentary lifestyle, ageing and dyslipidaemia. This may partly explain the link between osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. In addition, both osteoporosis and atherosclerosis, which underlies most cardiovascular disease, are both characterized by low grade chronic inflammation. Moreover, the processes involved in the calcification of atheroma are similar to what is seen in bone remodeling. Both processes also involve similar regulators such as osteoprotegerin and related proteins such as osteonectin, osteopontin and type 1 collagen are found in bone matrix and atheromatous plaques.
Conclusion
There is emerging evidence that individuals with osteoporosis are also at an increased risk of coronary artery disease and stroke even after controlling for other factors. The traditional risk factors for cardiovascular disease also predispose people to developing osteoporosis, suggesting that the same mechanism may be causing the two. Moreover, a number of anti-osteoporotic drugs have also been largely linked with cardiovascular disease. This calls for a change in the view of osteoporosis as a metabolic disease but as a cardio-metabolic disorder thereby emphasizing the need for intensified preventive strategies for the disease.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Sözen T, Özışık L, Başaran NÇ (2017) An overview and management of osteoporosis. Eur J Rheumatol 4(1):46–56
Barnsley J, Buckland G, Chan PE, Ong A, Ramos AS, Baxter M et al (2021) Pathophysiology and treatment of osteoporosis: challenges for clinical practice in older people. Aging Clin Exp Res 33(4):759–773
Pinheiro MB, Oliveira J, Bauman A, Fairhall N, Kwok W, Sherrington C (2020) Evidence on physical activity and osteoporosis prevention for people aged 65+ years: a systematic review to inform the WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 17(1):150
Salari N, Ghasemi H, Mohammadi L, Behzadi MH, Rabieenia E, Shohaimi S et al (2021) The global prevalence of osteoporosis in the world: a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. J Orthop Surg Res 16(1):609
Cauley JA (2013) Public health impact of osteoporosis. J Gerontol: Series A 68(10):1243–1251
Pinheiro MM, Ciconelli RM, Jacques NDO, Genaro PS, Martini LA, Ferraz MB (2010) The burden of osteoporosis in Brazil: regional data from fractures in adult men and women–the Brazilian osteoporosis study (BRAZOS). Rev Bras Reumatol 50(2):113–127
Irani AD, Poorolajal J, Khalilian A, Esmailnasab N, Cheraghi Z (2013) Prevalence of osteoporosis in Iran: a meta-analysis. J Res Med Sci 18(9):759–766
Wade SW, Strader C, Fitzpatrick LA, Anthony MS, O’Malley CD (2014) Estimating prevalence of osteoporosis: examples from industrialized countries. Arch Osteoporos 9:182
Chen P, Li Z, Hu Y (2016) Prevalence of osteoporosis in China: a meta-analysis and systematic review. BMC Public Health 3(16):1039
Adewole OA, Idowu SO, Shoga MO, Kayode MO, Adelowo OO (2021) Frequency of osteoporosis in black nigerian women aged 50 and above with degenerative musculoskeletal diseases and fractures. West Afr J Med 38(4):342–346
Babhulkar S, Seth S (2021) Prevalence of osteoporosis in India: an observation of 31238 adults. Int J Res Orthop 7(2):362–368
Feng X (2009) Chemical and biochemical basis of cell-bone matrix interaction in health and disease. Curr Chem Biol 3(2):189–196
Keen RW. Pathophysiology of osteoporosis. 2014 Jul 1 [cited 2022 Aug 16]; Available from: https://academic.oup.com/book/24599/chapter/187875579
Eriksen EF (2010) Cellular mechanisms of bone remodeling. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 11(4):219–227
Boyce BF, Xing L (2008) Functions of RANKL/RANK/OPG in bone modeling and remodeling. Arch Biochem Biophys 473(2):139–146
Florencio-Silva R, Sasso GRDS, Sasso-Cerri E, Simões MJ, Cerri PS (2015) Biology of bone tissue: structure, function, and factors that influence bone cells. BioMed Res Int 13:e421746
Föger-Samwald U, Dovjak P, Azizi-Semrad U, Kerschan-Schindl K, Pietschmann P (2020) Osteoporosis: pathophysiology and therapeutic options. EXCLI J 20(19):1017–1037
Ralston SH, Uitterlinden AG (2010) Genetics of osteoporosis. Endocr Rev 31(5):629–662
Vielma JR, Picon D, Gutiérrez LV, Lara ND (2018) Pathophysiology of osteoporosis: genes, oxidative stress and immunopathogeny. a qualitative systematic review. Avances en Biomedicina 7(2):100–111
Pignolo RJ, Law SF, Chandra A (2021) Bone aging, cellular senescence, and osteoporosis. JBMR Plus 5(4):e10488
Rafieian-Kopaei M, Setorki M, Doudi M, Baradaran A, Nasri H (2014) Atherosclerosis: process, indicators, risk factors and new hopes. Int J Prev Med 5(8):927–946
Moore K, Sheedy F, Fisher E (2013) Macrophages in atherosclerosis: a dynamic balance. Nat Rev Immunol 13(10):709–721
Lusis AJ. Atherosclerosis. Nature. 2000 Sep 14;407(6801):233–41
Bergheanu SC, Bodde MC, Jukema JW (2017) Pathophysiology and treatment of atherosclerosis. Neth Heart J 25(4):231–242
Whayne TF (2011) Atherosclerosis: current status of prevention and treatment. Int J Angiol 20(4):213–222
Jebari-Benslaiman S, Galicia-García U, Larrea-Sebal A, Olaetxea JR, Alloza I, Vandenbroeck K et al (2022) Pathophysiology of atherosclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 23(6):3346
Stojanovic OI, Lazovic M, Lazovic M, Vuceljic M (2011) Association between atherosclerosis and osteoporosis, the role of vitamin D. Arch Med Sci 7(2):179–188
Farhat GN, Cauley JA (2008) The link between osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab 5(1):19–34
Warburton DE, Nicol CW, Gatto SN, Bredin SS (2007) Cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis: balancing risk management. Vasc Health Risk Manag 3(5):673–689
Hamerman D (2005) Osteoporosis and atherosclerosis: biological linkages and the emergence of dual-purpose therapies. QJM 98(7):467–484
Pickering ME (2021) Cross-talks between the cardiovascular disease-sarcopenia-osteoporosis triad and magnesium in humans. Int J Mol Sci 22(16):9102
Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Koerfer R (2007) Vitamin D and vascular calcification. Curr Opin Lipidol 18(1):41–46
Neven E, De Schutter TM, De Broe ME, D’Haese PC (2011) Cell biological and physicochemical aspects of arterial calcification. Kidney Int 79(11):1166–1177
Alves RD, Eijken M, van de Peppel J, van Leeuwen JP (2014) Calcifying vascular smooth muscle cells and osteoblasts: independent cell types exhibiting extracellular matrix and biomineralization-related mimicries. BMC Genomics 15(1):965
Yoon V, Maalouf NM, Sakhaee K (2012) The effects of smoking on bone metabolism. Osteoporos Int 23(8):2081–2092
Al-Bashaireh AM, Haddad LG, Weaver M, Chengguo X, Kelly DL, Yoon S (2018) The effect of tobacco smoking on bone mass: an overview of pathophysiologic mechanisms. J Osteoporos 2(2018):e1206235
Kiyota Y, Muramatsu H, Sato Y, Kobayashi T, Miyamoto K, Iwamoto T et al (2020) Smoking cessation increases levels of osteocalcin and uncarboxylated osteocalcin in human sera. Sci Rep 10(1):16845
Li H, Wallin M, Barregard L, Sallsten G, Lundh T, Ohlsson C et al (2020) Smoking-induced risk of osteoporosis is partly mediated by cadmium from tobacco smoke: the MrOS Sweden study. J Bone Miner Res 35(8):1424–1429
Tarantino U, Cariati I, Greggi C, Gasbarra E, Belluati A, Ciolli L et al (2021) Skeletal system biology and smoke damage: from basic science to medical clinic. Int J Mol Sci 22(12):6629
Rodríguez-Gómez I, Mañas A, Losa-Reyna J, Rodríguez-Mañas L, Chastin SFM, Alegre LM et al (2018) Associations between sedentary time, physical activity and bone health among older people using compositional data analysis. PLoS ONE 13(10):e0206013
Onambele-Pearson G, Wullems J, Doody C, Ryan D, Morse C, Degens H (2019) Influence of habitual physical behavior – sleeping, sedentarism, physical activity – on bone health in community-dwelling older people. Front Physiol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00408
Sheng B, Li X, Nussler AK, Zhu S (2021) The relationship between healthy lifestyles and bone health: a narrative review. Medicine 100(8):e24684
Kim H, Iwasaki K, Miyake T, Shiozawa T, Nozaki S, Yajima K (2003) Changes in bone turnover markers during 14-day 6 degrees head-down bed rest. J Bone Miner Metab 21(5):311–315
Movassagh EZ, Vatanparast H (2017) Current evidence on the association of dietary patterns and bone health: a scoping review. Adv Nutr 8(1):1–16
Finck H, Hart AR, Jennings A, Welch AA (2014) Is there a role for vitamin C in preventing osteoporosis and fractures? a review of the potential underlying mechanisms and current epidemiological evidence. Nutr Res Rev 27(2):268–283
Mangano KM, Sahni S, Kerstetter JE, Kenny AM, Hannan MT (2013) Polyunsaturated fatty acids and their relation with bone and muscle health in adults. Curr Osteoporos Rep 11(3):203–212
Sampson HW (2002) Alcohol and other factors affecting osteoporosis risk in women. Alcohol Res Health 26(4):292–298
Berg KM, Kunins HV, Jackson JL, Nahvi S, Chaudhry A, Harris KA et al (2008) Association between alcohol consumption and both osteoporotic fracture and bone density. Am J Med 121(5):406–418
Gavaler JS (2002) Oral hormone replacement therapy: factors that influence the estradiol concentrations achieved in a multiracial study population. J Clin Pharmacol 42(2):137–144
Eby JM, Sharieh F, Callaci JJ (2020) Impact of alcohol on bone health, homeostasis and fracture repair. Curr Pathobiol Rep 8(3):75–86
Godos J, Giampieri F, Chisari E, Micek A, Paladino N, Forbes-Hernández TY et al (2022) Alcohol consumption, bone mineral density, and risk of osteoporotic fractures: a dose-response meta-analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19(3):1515
Chai H, Ge J, Li L, Li J, Ye Y (2021) Hypertension is associated with osteoporosis: a case-control study in Chinese postmenopausal women. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 22(1):253
Do Carmo L, Harrison DG (2020) Hypertension and osteoporosis: common pathophysiological mechanisms. Med Novel Technol Dev 1(8):100047
Hu Z, Yang K, Hu Z, Li M, Wei H, Tang Z et al (2021) Determining the association between hypertension and bone metabolism markers in osteoporotic patients. Medicine 100(24):e26276
Kar A, Datta S (2018) A study of serum vitamin D level and its association with hypertension. J Family Med Prim Care 7(3):546–550
Kheiri B, Abdalla A, Osman M, Ahmed S, Hassan M, Bachuwa G (2018) Vitamin D deficiency and risk of cardiovascular diseases: a narrative review. Clin Hypertens 24(1):9
Joukar F, Naghipour M, Hassanipour S, Salari A, Alizadeh A, Saeidi-Saedi H et al (2020) <p>Association of serum levels of vitamin D with blood pressure status in Northern Iranian population: the PERSIAN Guilan cohort study (PGCS)</p>. IJGM 11(13):99–104
Wongdee K, Charoenphandhu N (2011) Osteoporosis in diabetes mellitus: possible cellular and molecular mechanisms. World J Diabet 2(3):41–48
Murray CE, Coleman CM (2019) Impact of diabetes mellitus on bone health. Int J Mol Sci 20(19):4873
Piccinin MA, Khan ZA (2014) Pathophysiological role of enhanced bone marrow adipogenesis in diabetic complications. Adipocyte 3(4):263–272
Savopoulos C, Dokos C, Kaiafa G, Hatzitolios A (2011) Adipogenesis and osteoblastogenesis: trans-differentiation in the pathophysiology of bone disorders. Hippokratia 15(1):18–21
Yamamoto M, Sugimoto T (2016) Advanced glycation end products, diabetes, and bone strength. Curr Osteoporos Rep 14(6):320–326
Anagnostis P, Florentin M, Livadas S, Lambrinoudaki I, Goulis DG (2022) Bone health in patients with dyslipidemias: an underestimated aspect. Int J Mol Sci 23(3):1639
Mandal CC (2015) High cholesterol deteriorates bone health: new insights into molecular mechanisms. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 23(6):165
Papachristou NI, Blair HC, Kypreos KE, Papachristou DJ (2017) High-density lipoprotein (HDL) metabolism and bone mass. J Endocrinol 233(2):R95-107
McFarlane SI, Sica DA, Sowers JR (2007) Stroke in patients with diabetes and hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 7(5):286–294
Zeng X, Zhan K, Zhang L, Zeng D, Yu W, Zhang X et al (2017) The impact of high total cholesterol and high low-density lipoprotein on avascular necrosis of the femoral head in low-energy femoral neck fractures. J Orthop Surg Res 12(1):30
Chen SJ, Lin CS, Lin CL, Kao CH (2015) Osteoporosis is associated with high risk for coronary heart disease. Medicine (Baltimore) 94(27):e1146
Khandkar C, Vaidya K, Karimi Galougahi K, Patel S (2021) Low bone mineral density and coronary artery disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol Heart Vasc 23(37):100891
den Uyl D, Nurmohamed MT, van Tuyl LH, Raterman HG, Lems WF (2011) (Sub)clinical cardiovascular disease is associated with increased bone loss and fracture risk; a systematic review of the association between cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. Arthritis Res Ther 13(1):R5
Mori H, Torii S, Kutyna M, Sakamoto A, Finn AV, Virmani R (2018) Coronary artery calcification and its progression: what does it really mean? JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 11(1):127–142
Prasad M, Reriani M, Khosla S, Gössl M, Lennon R, Gulati R, et al. 2014. Coronary microvascular endothelial dysfunction is an independent predictor of development of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. 533–8.
West SL, O’Donnell E. Cardiovascular disease and bone loss—new research in identifying common disease pathophysiologies and predictors. AME Medical Journal . 2018 Mar 26 [cited 2022 Aug 25];3(3). Available from: https://amj.amegroups.com/article/view/4385
Rochette L, Meloux A, Rigal E, Zeller M, Cottin Y, Vergely C (2019) The role of osteoprotegerin and its ligands in vascular function. Int J Mol Sci 20(3):705
Rea IM, Gibson DS, McGilligan V, McNerlan SE, Alexander HD, Ross OA (2018) Age and age-related diseases: role of inflammation triggers and cytokines. Front Immunol 9(9):586
Huo K, Hashim SI, Yong KLY, Su H, Qu QM (2016) Impact and risk factors of post-stroke bone fracture. World J Exp Med 6(1):1–8
Zhang L, Zhang ZH, Wang QR, Su YJ, Lu YY, Zhang CL et al (2021) Stroke and osteoporosis: a Taiwan cohort study. Postgrad Med J 97(1146):211–216
Zhu B, Yang J, Zhou Z, Ling X, Cheng N, Wang Z et al (2022) Total bone mineral density is inversely associated with stroke: a family osteoporosis cohort study in rural China. QJM Int J Med 115(4):228–234
Nakagami H, Morishita R (2013) Hypertension and osteoporosis. Clin Calcium 23(4):497–503
Barzilay JI, Buzkova P, Cauley JA, Robbins JA, Fink HA, Mukamal KJ (2018) The associations of subclinical atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease with hip fracture risk and bone mineral density in elderly adults. Osteoporos Int 29(10):2219–2230
Hamoud H, Mustafa AA, Mohamad H, Kheshen GE (2017) Calcified large arteries, osteoporosis & acute stroke what is the relationship. Orthopedics Rheumatology Open Access J 6(1):32–38
Carda S, Cisari C, Invernizzi M, Bevilacqua M (2009) Osteoporosis after stroke: a review of the causes and potential treatments. Cerebrovasc Dis 28(2):191–200
Borschmann K (2011) Exercise protects bone after stroke, or does it? a narrative review of the evidence. Stroke Res Treat 9(2012):e103697
Poole KES, Reeve J, Warburton EA (2002) Falls, fractures, and osteoporosis after stroke. Stroke 33(5):1432–1436
Jørgensen L, Engstad T, Jacobsen BK (2001) Bone mineral density in acute stroke patients: low bone mineral density may predict first stroke in women. Stroke 32(1):47–51
Anderson JJB, Kruszka B, Delaney JAC, He K, Burke GL, Alonso A et al (2016) Calcium intake from diet and supplements and the risk of coronary artery calcification and its progression among older adults: 10-Year follow-up of the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). J Am Heart Assoc 5(10):e003815
Wasilewski GB, Vervloet MG, Schurgers LJ (2019) The bone—vasculature axis: calcium supplementation and the role of vitamin K. Front Cardiovasc Med 5(6):6
Barbarawi M, Kheiri B, Zayed Y, Barbarawi O, Dhillon H, Swaid B et al (2019) Vitamin D supplementation and cardiovascular disease risks in more than 83 000 individuals in 21 randomized clinical trials: a meta-analysis. JAMA Cardiol 4(8):765–776
Fuggle NR, Cooper C, Harvey NC, Al-Daghri N, Brandi ML, Bruyere O et al (2020) Assessment of cardiovascular safety of anti-osteoporosis drugs. Drugs 80(15):1537–1552
Plu-Bureau G, Mounier-Vehier C (2021) Menopausal hormone therapy an cardiovascular risk postmenopausal women management: CNGOF and GEMVi clinical practice guidelines. Gynecol Obstet Fertil Senol 49(5):438–447
Henderson VW, Lobo RA (2012) Hormone therapy and the risk of stroke: perspectives ten years after the women’s health initiative trials. Climacteric 15(3):229–234
Taylor JE, Baig MS, Helmy T, Gersh FL (2021) Controversies regarding postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy for primary cardiovascular disease prevention in women. Cardiol Rev 29(6):296–304
Cummings SR, Ettinger B, Delmas PD, Kenemans P, Stathopoulos V, Verweij P et al (2008) The effects of tibolone in older postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 359(7):697–708
Park SY, Kim SH, Kim TY, Lee YK, Ha YC, Jang S et al (2021) Incidence and risk of venous thromboembolism in bisphosphonates and selective estrogen receptor modulators treatment in Korea. J Korean Med Sci 36(27):e186
Walsh BW, Kuller LH, Wild RA, Paul S, Farmer M, Lawrence JB et al (1998) Effects of raloxifene on serum lipids and coagulation factors in healthy postmenopausal women. JAMA 279(18):1445–1451
Kim DH, Rogers JR, Fulchino LA, Kim CA, Solomon DH, Kim SC (2015) Bisphosphonates and risk of cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 10(4):e0122646
Nitta K, Akiba T, Suzuki K, Uchida K, Watanabe RI, Majima K et al (2004) Effects of cyclic intermittent etidronate therapy on coronary artery calcification in patients receiving long-term hemodialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 44(4):680–688
Blumenthal RS, Kapur NK (2006) Can a potent statin actually regress coronary atherosclerosis? JAMA 295(13):1583–1584
Cummings SR, San Martin J, McClung MR, Siris ES, Eastell R, Reid IR et al (2009) Denosumab for prevention of fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 361(8):756–765
Miller PD, Hattersley G, Riis BJ, Williams GC, Lau E, Russo LA et al (2016) Effect of abaloparatide vs placebo on new vertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 316(7):722–733
Acknowledgements
None
Funding
Self-fundeD.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
None.
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Azeez, T.A. Osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease: a review. Mol Biol Rep 50, 1753–1763 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-022-08088-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-022-08088-4