Abstract
Although numerous studies show that religious involvement is associated with favorable mental health outcomes, research also suggests that religious struggles can be psychologically distressing. Building on previous research, this study examines the psychological consequences of deviating from religious norms among Conservative Protestants. Using data from a statewide probability sample of Texas adults (n = 463), this study tests the hypothesis that Conservative Protestants who fall short of religious norms for attending religious services, reading scripture, and praying will suffer more psychological distress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms than those who meet or exceed religious expectations. Findings indicate that falling short of population average levels for church attendance and reading of religious scripture is associated with higher levels of psychological distress. Interestingly, falling short of population averages for prayer is unrelated to psychological distress, depressive symptoms, and anxiety.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abu-Raiya, H., Pargament, K. I., & Magyar-Russell, G. (2010). When religion goes awry: Religious risk factors for poorer health and well-being. In P. Verhagen, H. M. Van Praag, J. J. López-Ibor Jr, J. Cox, & D. Moussaoui (Eds.), Religion and psychiatry: Beyond boundaries (pp. 389–411). West Sussex: Wiley.
Alferi, S. M., Culver, J. L., Carver, C. S., Arena, P. L., & Antoni, M. H. (1999). Religiosity, religious coping, and distress: A prospective study of Catholic and Evangelical Hispanic women in treatment for early-stage breast cancer. Journal of Health Psychology, 4(3), 343–356.
Allen, R. S., Phillips, L. L., Roff, L. L., Cavanaugh, R., & Day, L. (2008). Religiousness/spirituality and mental health among older male inmates. The Gerontologist, 48(5), 692–697.
Anderson, M., & Taylor, H. (2006). Sociology: Understanding a diverse society. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Ano, G. G., & Vasconcelles, E. B. (2005). Religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61(4), 461–480.
Ardelt, M., & Koenig, C. S. (2006). The role of religion for hospice patients and relatively healthy older adults. Research on Aging, 28(2), 184–215.
Aronson, E. (1999). Dissonance, hypocrisy, and the self-concept. In E. Harmon-Jones & J. Mills (Eds.), Cognitive dissonance: Progress on a pivotal theory in social psychology (pp. 103–126). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Bock, W. E., Beeghley, L., & Mixon, A. J. (1983). Religion, socioeconomic status, and sexual mortality: An application of reference group theory. The Sociological Quarterly, 24(4), 545–559.
Burdette, A. M., Ellison, C. G., & Hill, T. D. (2005). Conservative Protestantism and tolerance toward homosexuals: An examination of potential mechanisms. Sociological Inquiry, 75(2), 177–196.
Cochran, J. K., & Beeghley, L. (1991). The influence of religion on attitudes toward nonmartial sexuality: A preliminary assessment of reference group theory. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30(1), 45–62.
Cochran, J. K., Beeghley, L., & Bock, E. W. (1988). Religiosity and alcohol behavior: An exploration of reference group theory. Sociological Forum, 3(2), 256–276.
Cochran, J. K., Chamlin, M. B., Beeghley, L., & Fenwick, M. (2004). Religion, religiosity, and nonmarital sexual conduct: An application of reference group theory. Sociological Inquiry, 74(1), 102–127.
Dillon, M., & Wink, P. (2007). In the course of a lifetime: Tracing religious belief, practice and change. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Dougherty, K., Johnson, B., & Polson, E. (2007). Recovering the lost: Remeasuring US religious affiliation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 46(4), 483–499.
Elliot, A., & Devine, P. (1994). On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as psychological discomfort. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(3), 382–394.
Ellison, C. G., Bradshaw, M., Storch, J., Marcum, J. P., & Hill, T. D. (2011). Religious doubt and sleep quality in a nationwide study of Presbyterians. Review of Religious Research, 53(2), 119–136.
Ellison, C. G., Burdette, A. M., & Hill, T. D. (2009). Blessed assurance: Religion, anxiety, and tranquility among US adults. Social Science Research, 38(3), 656–667.
Ellison, C. G., & Lee, J. (2010). Spiritual struggles and psychological distress: Is there a dark side of religion? Social Indicators Research, 98(3), 501–517.
Ellison, C. G., Roalson, L. A., Guillory, J. M., Flannelly, K. J., & Marcum, J. P. (2010). Religious resources, spiritual struggles, and mental health in a nationwide sample of PCUSA clergy. Pastoral Psychology, 59(3), 287–304.
Exline, J. J. (2002). Stumbling blocks on the religious road: Fractured relationships, nagging vices, and the inner struggle to believe. Psychological Inquiry, 13(3), 182–189.
Exline, J. J., & Martin, A. (2005). Anger toward God: A new frontier in forgiveness research. In E. L. Worthington Jr (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness research (pp. 73–88). New York: Guilford Press.
Exline, J. J., & Rose, E. (2005). Religious and spiritual struggles. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 315–330). New York: Guilford Press.
Exline, J. J., Yali, A. M., & Sanderson, W. C. (2000). Guilt, discord, and alienation: The role of religious strain in depression and sucidality. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(12), 1481–1496.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson and Company.
Fisher, R. D., Derison, D., Polley, C. F, III., Cadman, J., & Johnston, D. (1994). Religiousness, religious orientation, and attitudes towards gays and lesbians. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(7), 614–630.
Galek, K., Krause, N., Ellison, C. G., Kudler, T., & Flannelly, K. (2007). Religious doubt and mental health across the lifespan. Journal of Adult Development, 14(1), 16–25.
Glock, C. Y., & Stark, R. (1965). Religion and Society in Tension. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Hempel, L. M., & Bartkowski, J. P. (2008). Scripture, sin, and salvation: Theological conservatism reconsidered. Social Forces, 86(4), 1647–1674.
Hill, T., & Cobb, R. (2011). Religious involvement and religious struggles. In A. J. Blasi (Ed.), Toward a sociological theory of religion and health (pp. 239–260). Brill: Leiden.
Keller, Roger R. (2000). Religious diversity in North America. In P. S. Richards & A. E. Bergin (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and religious diversity (pp. 27–55). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Colpe, L. J., Hiripi, E., Mroczek, D. K., Normand, S. T., et al. (2002). Short screening scales to monitor population prevalence’s and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychological Medicine, 32(6), 959–976.
Koenig, H. G., King, D., & Carson, V. (2012). Handbook of religion and health (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Koenig, H. G., McCullough, M. E., & Larson, D. B. (2001). Handbook of religion and health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Krause, N., Ingersoll-Dayton, B., Ellison, C. G., & Wulff, K. M. (1999). Aging, religious doubt, and psychological well-being. The Gerontologist, 39(5), 525–533.
Krause, N., & Wulff, K. M. (2004). Religious doubt and health: Exploring the potential dark side of religion. Sociology of Religion, 65(1), 35–56.
Leege, D. C. (1996). Religiosity measures in the National Election Studies: A guide to their use, Part 2. Votes and Opinions, 2(6–9), 33–36.
Leege, D. C., Wald, K. D., & Kellstedt, L. A. (1993). The public dimension of private devotionalism. In D. Leege & L. Kellstedt (Eds.), Rediscovering the religious factor in American politics (pp. 139–156). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe Inc.
Magyar-Russell, G., & Pargament, K. I. (2006). The darker side of religion: Risk factors for poorer health and well-being. In P. McNamera (Ed.), Where God and man meet: How the brain and evolutionary studies alter our understanding of religion (pp. 91–117). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
McConnell, K. M., Paragament, K. I., Ellison, Ch G, & Flannelly, K. J. (2006). Examining the links between spiritual struggles and symptoms of psychopathology in a national sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(12), 1469–1484.
Mockabee, S. T., Monson, J. Q., & Grant, J. T. (2001). Measuring religious commitment among Catholics and Protestants: A new approach. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40(4), 675–690.
Musick, M. A. (2004). Survey of Texas adults. Austin, TX: The University of Texas at Austin.
Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G., Tarakeshwar, N., & Hahn, J. (2004). Religious coping methods as predictors of psychological, physical, and spiritual outcomes among medically ill elderly patients: A two-year longitudinal study. Journal of Health Psychology, 9(6), 713–730.
Pitt, R. (2010). Killing the messenger’: Religious Black gay men’s neutralization of anti-gay religious messages. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 49(1), 56–72.
Roof, W. C., & McKinney, W. C. (1987). American mainline religion: Its changing shape and future. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Sherkat, D. E., & Ellison, C. G. (1997). The cognitive structure of a moral crusade: Conservative Protestantism and opposition to pornography. Social Forces, 75(3), 957–980.
Shibley, M. A. (1996). Resurgent Evangelicalism in the United States: Mapping cultural change since 1970. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.
Stark, R., & Bainbridge, W. S. (1985). The future of religion: Secularization, revival and cult formations. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Sternthal, M. J., Williams, D. R., Musick, M. A., & Buck, A. C. (2010). Depression, anxiety, and religious life: A search for mediators. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(3), 343–359.
Tix, A. P., & Frazier, P. A. (2005). Mediation and moderation of the relationship between intrinsic religiousness and mental health. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(3), 295–306.
Wimberley, D. W. (1989). Religion and role-identity: A structural symbolic interactionist conceptualization of religiosity. Sociology Quarterly, 30(1), 125–142.
Woodberry, R. D., & Smith, C. S. (1998). Fundamentalism et al.: Conservative protestants in America. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 25–56.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mannheimer, A.H., Hill, T.D. Deviating from Religious Norms and the Mental Health of Conservative Protestants. J Relig Health 54, 1826–1838 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-014-9951-y
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-014-9951-y