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Commuting and Life Satisfaction Revisited: Evidence on a Non-linear Relationship

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Abstract

Prior research has documented linear detrimental effects of commuting on individuals’ life satisfaction: the longer individuals’ daily commute, the less satisfied they are with their life. An inspection of the available longitudinal evidence suggests that this conclusion is almost exclusively based on a continuous operationalization of commuting time and distance with a focus on a linear relationship. In contrast, cross-sectional evidence indicates preliminary evidence for non-linear effects and suggests that negative effects of commuting are particularly likely when commuting exceeds a certain threshold of time or distance. Relying on nationally representative data for Germany, the present study applies longitudinal modelling comparing estimates from a continuous and a categorical operationalization. Results clearly indicate a non-linear association and show that negative effects of commuting are almost completely due to individuals who commute more than 80 km (50 miles) daily per way. These findings are in conflict with prior research (partly resting on the same data) proposing a linear relationship. Further analyses suggest that satisfaction with leisure time is a significant mediator of the observed non-linear effect. Results are discussed in light of prior theorizing on the consequences of commuting.

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Notes

  1. The data were provided by the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin). A detailed description of the GSOEP can be found in Wagner et al. (2007).

  2. We tested the robustness of the chosen operationalization against several other possible categorizations, all of which led to similar results.

  3. The CASMIN classification contains the following levels of education: inadequately completed (1a), general elementary education (1b), basic vocational qualification (1c), intermediate vocational qualification (2a), intermediate general qualification (2b), general maturity certificate (2c), vocational maturity certificate (2c) lower tertiary education (3a) and higher tertiary education (3b). For more information on CASMIN, see Brauns et al. (2003). For simplification, the CASMIN levels are grouped as follows: low educational attainment (CASMIN levels 1a–1c), medium educational attainment (CASMIN levels 2a–2c) and high educational attainment (CASMIN levels 3a–3b).

  4. Past research suggests that the relationship between income and life satisfaction is best expressed by a logarithmic term (e.g., Wolbring et al. 2013). The household equivalence income allows to compare the financial well-being of a household independent of the households’ structure. It is measured by summing all household members’ income and then dividing by the square root of the household size.

  5. In contrast to that, further analyses reveal no association between commuting distance on the one hand and feeling worried or angry on the other.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, University of Toronto, 725 Spadina Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5S 2J4, Canada

    Julia Ingenfeld

  2. University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nürnberg, Germany

    Tobias Wolbring

  3. University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany

    Herbert Bless

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  1. Julia Ingenfeld
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Correspondence to Julia Ingenfeld.

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Appendix

Appendix

See Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

Table 2 Descriptive statistics
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Table 3 Fixed-effects regression results: life satisfaction and affective well-being without and with compensation effects, continuous operationalization
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Table 4 Fixed-effects regression results: life satisfaction and affective well-being without and with compensation effects, categorical operationalization
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Table 5 Fixed-effects regression results: domain satisfaction without and with compensation effects, categorical operationalization
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Table 6 Fixed-effects regression results: domain satisfaction without and with compensation effects, categorical operationalization
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Table 7 Regression results: life satisfaction, controlling for leisure satisfaction
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Ingenfeld, J., Wolbring, T. & Bless, H. Commuting and Life Satisfaction Revisited: Evidence on a Non-linear Relationship. J Happiness Stud 20, 2677–2709 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0064-2

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