Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Urban Adolescents’ Exposure to Violence and Racial Discrimination: Gender Differences in Coping and Mental Health

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Exposure to violence and racial discrimination are linked with behavioral and emotional health concerns among youth. However, it is unclear which coping strategies are most adaptive versus maladaptive for youth in urban areas. This study explored the extent to which coping, by using self-reliance or ventilating feelings, is adaptive or maladaptive for youth exposed to violence and racial discrimination in relation to their behavioral and emotional health difficulties. Data come from 398 ninth graders, of which 51% were male, and 92% were Black. Multigroup analyses for males and females were conducted to explore the associations between coping strategies and emotional and externalizing symptoms, with racial discrimination and exposure to violence as potential moderators. Results suggested for females, ventilating feelings and exposure to violence were associated with increased emotional and behavioral symptoms; for males, a series of statistically significant interactions suggested that coping strategies and community stressors operated in concert, with self-reliance coping serving as a protective factor.

Highlights

  • Ventilating feelings and exposure to violence were significantly associated with increased emotional and behavioral symptoms in adolescent females

  • For adolescent males, coping strategies and community stressors interacted to associate with emotional and behavioral symptoms

  • Interactions suggested ventilating feelings may be a potential risk factor, whereas self-reliance may be protective for adolescent males

  • Ventilating feelings and self-reliance applied to male adolescents; coping skills not assessed in this study may be more relevant to female adolescents

  • Findings suggest gender-specific coping responses to violence and racial discrimination

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Altshuler, J. L. & & Ruble, D. N. (1989). Developmental changes in children’s awareness of strategies for coping with uncontrollable stress. Child Development, 60(6), 1337–1349. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130925.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, R. E., Metzger, I., Applewhite, K., Sawyer, B., Jackson, W., Flores, S., Majors, A., McKenny, M. C., & Carter, R. (2020). Hands up, now what?: Black families’ reactions to racial socialization interventions. Journal of Youth Development: Bridging Research and Practice, 15(5), 93–109.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bird, G. W., & Harris, R. L. (1990). A comparison of role strain and coping strategies by gender and family structure among early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 10(2), 141–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, R. C., Cooley, M. R., Lambert, S. F., & Ialongo, N. S. (2003). First‐grade child risk behaviors for community violence exposure in middle school. Journal of Community Psychology, 31(3), 297–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brady, S. S., Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D. B., & Tolan, P. H. (2008). Adaptive coping reduces the impact of community violence exposure on violent behavior among African American and Latino male adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9164-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Kogan, S. M., & Chen, Y. F. (2012). Perceived discrimination and longitudinal increases in adolescent substance use: Gender differences and mediational pathways. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 1006–1011. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300588.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Browning, C. R., Calder, C. A., Ford, J. L., Boettner, B., Smith, A. L., & Haynie, D. (2017). Understanding racial differences in exposure to violent areas: integrating survey, smartphone, and administrative data resources. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 669(1), 41–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716216678167.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brownlow, B. N., Sosoo, E. E., Long, R. N., Hoggard, L. S., Burford, T. I., & Hill, L. K. (2019). Sex differences in the impact of racial discrimination on mental health among Black Americans. Current Psychiatry Reports, 21(11), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1098-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunson, R. K., & Miller, J. (2006). Young black men and urban policing in the United States. British Journal of Criminology, 46(4), 613–640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Busby, D. R., Lambert, S. F., & Ialongo, N. S. (2013). Psychological symptoms linking exposure to community violence and academic functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(2), 250–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1098-9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J. (2002). Does venting anger feed or extinguish the flame? Catharsis, rumination, distraction, anger, and aggressive responding. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(6), 724–731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, C. H., Assari, S., & Breland-Noble, A. M. (2016). The epidemiology of mental disorders in African American children and adolescents. In Handbook of Mental Health in African American Youth (pp. 3-20). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25501-9_1

  • Card, N. A., & Little, T. D. (2006). Proactive and reactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: a meta-analysis of differential relations with psychosocial adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30(5), 466–480. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025406071904.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, E. F., & Stevenson, Jr, H. C. (2005). They wear the mask: hypervulnerability and hypermasculine aggression among African American males in an urban remedial disciplinary school. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 11(4), 53–74. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v11n04_03.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, W. Y. (2010). Exposure to community violence and adolescents’ internalizing behaviors among African American and Asian American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(4), 403–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9427-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clendinen, C. A., & Kertes, D. A. (2022). Discrimination and health: fostering better health for Black American youth. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9(1), 3–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., Jaser, S. S., Bettis, A. H., Watson, K. H., Gruhn, M. A., Dunbar, J. P., Williams, E., & Thigpen, J. C. (2017). Coping, emotion regulation, and psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: a meta-analysis and narrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 143(9), 939–991. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000110.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., Malcarne, V. L., & Fondacaro, K. M. (1988). Coping with stressful events in older children and young adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(3), 405 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.56.3.405.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooley, M. R., Turner, S. M., & Beidel, D. C. (1995). Assessing community violence: the children’s report of exposure to violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(2), 201–208. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199502000-00015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cote, S., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Zoccolillo, M., & Vitaro, F. (2002). Childhood behavioral profiles leading to adolescent conduct disorder: risk trajectories for boys and girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(9), 1086–1094. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200209000-00009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, M. (2002). Negative coping as mediator in the relation between violence and outcomes: inner‐city African American youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72(1), 102–109. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.72.1.102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dholakia, N., & Gilbert, D. (2021). Community violence intervention programs, explained. Vera Institute of Justice.

  • DiClemente, C. M., & Richards, M. H. (2019). Community violence in early adolescence: assessing coping strategies for reducing delinquency and aggression. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2019.1650365

  • Dodge, K. A., Lochman, J. E., Harnish, J. D., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1997). Reactive and proactive aggression in school children and psychiatrically impaired chronically assaultive youth. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dollahite, D. C. (1991). Family resource management and family stress theories: toward a conceptual integration. Lifestyles, 12(4), 361–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00986852.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doyle, A., Ostrander, R., Skare, S., Crosby, R. D., & August, G. J. (1997). Convergent and criterion-related validity of the behavior assessment system for children-parent rating scale. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26(3), 276–284. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2603_6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dusek, J. B., & Danko, M. (1994). Adolescent coping styles and perceptions of parental child rearing. Journal of Adolescent Research, 9(4), 412–426. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489494002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ebata, A. T., & Moos, R. H. (1991). Coping and adjustment in distressed and healthy adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 12(1), 33–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/0193-3973(91)90029-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edlynn, E. S., Miller, S. A., Gaylord‐Harden, N. K., & Richards, M. H. (2008). African American inner‐city youth exposed to violence: coping skills as a moderator for anxiety. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78(2), 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013948.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Losoya, S. H., & Guthrie, I. K. (2001). The relations of regulation and emotionality to children’s externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. Child Development, 72(4), 1112–1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enders, C. K. (2022). Applied missing data analysis. Guilford Publications.

  • English, D., Lambert, S. F., & Ialongo, N. S. (2014). Longitudinal associations between experienced racial discrimination and depressive symptoms in African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034703

  • Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Boldizar, J. P. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(2), 424–430. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199303000-00026.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foster, J. D., Kuperminc, G. P., & Price, A. W. (2004). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress and related symptoms among inner-city minority youth exposed to community violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 59–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, P. J., Tompsett, C. J., Braciszewski, J. M., Jacques-Tiura, A. J., & Baltes, B. B. (2009). Community violence: a meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 227–259. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galán, C. A., Auguste, E. E., Smith, N. A., & Meza, J. I. (2022). An intersectional‐contextual approach to racial trauma exposure risk and coping among black youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32(2), 583–595.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Cunningham, J. A., & Zelencik, B. (2011). Effects of exposure to community violence on internalizing symptoms: does desensitization to violence occur in African American youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(5), 711–719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9510-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrell, S. P., Merchant, M. A., & Young, S. A. (1997). Psychometric properties of the racism and life experiences scales (RaLES). Unpublished manuscript.

  • Hill, L. G., Coie, J. D., Lochman, J. E., & Greenberg, M. T. (2004). Effectiveness of early screening for externalizing problems: issues of screening accuracy and utility. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(5), 809–820. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.809.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Horwitz, A. G., Hill, R. M., & King, C. A. (2011). Specific coping behaviors in relation to adolescent depression and suicidal ideation. Journal of Adolescence, 34(5), 1077–1085.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: a review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, G., Faber, S. C., Faber, N., Bartlett, A., Ouimet, A. J., & Williams, M. T. (2023). A systematic review of Black People coping with racism: approaches, analysis, and empowerment. Perspective on Psychological Science, 18(2), 392–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., & Rottenberg, J. (2010). Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 865–878.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kobus, K., & Reyes, O. (2000). A descriptive study of urban Mexican American adolescents’ perceived stress and coping. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 22(2), 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986300222002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kressin, N. R., Raymond, K. L., & Manze, M. (2008). Perceptions of race/ethnicity-based discrimination: a review of measures and evaluation of their usefulness for the health care setting. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19(3), 697–730.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kwate, N. O. A., & Goodman, M. S. (2015). Cross-sectional and longitudinal effects of racism on mental health among residents of Black neighborhoods in New York City. American Journal of Public Health, 105(4), 711–718. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302243.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lanier, Y., Sommers, M. S., Fletcher, J., Sutton, M. Y., & Roberts, D. D. (2017). Examining racial discrimination frequency, racial discrimination stress, and psychological well-being among Black early adolescents. Journal of Black Psychology, 43(3), 219–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798416638189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.

  • Lee, R. T., Perez, A. D., Boykin, C. M., & Mendoza-Denton, R. (2019). On the prevalence of racial discrimination in the United States. PlOS ONE, 14(1), e0210698. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210698.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J., Mustanski, B., Dick, D., Bolland, J., & Kertes, D. A. (2017). Risk and protective factors for comorbid internalizing and externalizing problems among economically disadvantaged African American youth. Development and Psychopathology, 29(3), 1043–1056. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579416001012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2002). Contextual social–cognitive mediators and child outcome: a test of the theoretical model in the Coping Power program. Development and Psychopathology, 14(4), 945–967. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579402004157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loyd, A. B., Hotton, A. L., Walden, A. L., Kendall, A. D., Emerson, E., & Donenberg, G. R. (2019). Associations of ethnic/racial discrimination with internalizing symptoms and externalizing behaviors among juvenile justice-involved youth of color. Journal of Adolescence, 75, 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.07.012.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, M. J., McCarthy, B., Conger, R. D., Gibbons, F. X., Simons, R. L., Cutrona, C. E., & Brody, G. H. (2011). The enduring significance of racism: discrimination and delinquency among Black American youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(3), 662–676. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00699.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Maughan, B., Pickles, A., Rowe, R., Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (2000). Developmental trajectories of aggressive and non-aggressive conduct problems. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16, 199–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGee, Z., Alexander, C., Cunningham, K., Hamilton, C., & James, C. (2019). Assessing the linkage between exposure to violence and victimization, coping, and adjustment among urban youth: findings from a research study on adolescents. Children, 6(3), 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/children6030036.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McNeish, D., & Stapleton, L. M. (2016). Modeling clustered data with very few clusters. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 51(4), 495–518.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mrug, S., & Windle, M. (2010). Prospective effects of violence exposure across multiple contexts on early adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(8), 953–961. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02222.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mullis, R. L., & Chapman, P. (2000). Age, gender, and self-esteem differences in adolescent coping styles. The Journal of Social Psychology, 140(4), 539–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540009600494.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neblett, Jr, E. W., White, R. L., Ford, K. R., Philip, C. L., Nguyen, H. X., & Sellers, R. M. (2008). Patterns of racial socialization and psychological adjustment: can parental communications about race reduce the impact of racial discrimination? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18(3), 477–515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2006). The etiology of gender differences in depression. In C. M. Mazure & G. P. Keita (Eds.), Understanding depression in women: applying empirical research to practice and policy (pp. 9–43). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11434-001

  • Parent, M. C., DeBlaere, C., & Moradi, B. (2013). Approaches to research on intersectionality: Perspectives on gender, LGBT, and racial/ethnic identities. Sex Roles, 68, 639–645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, J. M., & McCubbin, H. I. (1987). Adolescent coping style and behaviors: conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Adolescence, 10(2), 163–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1971(87)80086-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perzow, S. E., Bray, B. C., Wadsworth, M. E., Young, J. F., & Hankin, B. L. (2021). Individual differences in adolescent coping: comparing a community sample and a low-SES sample to understand coping in context. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(4), 693–710.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31(4), 437–448. https://doi.org/10.3102/10769986031004437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, S. E., & Listwan, S. J. (2018). Managing the threat of violence: coping strategies among juvenile inmates. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(8), 1306–1326.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2004). Behavior assessment system for children (2nd ed.). Bloomington, MN: Pearson Assessments.

  • Riina, E. M., Martin, A., Gardner, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2013). Context matters: links between neighborhood discrimination, neighborhood cohesion and African American adolescents’ adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(1), 136–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9804-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salzinger, S., Rosario, M., Feldman, R. S., & Ng‐Mak, D. S. (2008). Aggressive behavior in response to violence exposure: is it adaptive for middle‐school children. Journal of Community Psychology, 36(8), 1008–1025. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez, Y. M., Lambert, S. F., & Cooley-Strickland, M. (2013). Adverse life events, coping and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in urban African American youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(1), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9590-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, L. D., & House, L. E. (2005). Relationship of distress and perceived control to coping with perceived racial discrimination among Black youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 31(3), 254–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798405278494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seaton, E. K., Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2008). The prevalence of perceived discrimination among African American and Caribbean Black youth. Developmental Psychology, 44(5), 1288–1297. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012747.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Seaton, E. K., Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2010). An intersectional approach for understanding perceived discrimination and psychological well-being among African American and Caribbean Black youth. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1372–1379. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019869.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Seaton, E. K., Upton, R., Gilbert, A., & Volpe, V. (2014). A moderated mediation model: racial discrimination, coping strategies, and racial identity among Black adolescents. Child Development, 85(3), 882–890. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, R. (2006). Racial identity matters: the relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(2), 187–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00128.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheats, K. J., Irving, S. M., Mercy, J. A., Simon, T. R., Crosby, A. E., Ford, D. C., Merrick, M. T., Annor, F. B., & Morgan, R. E. (2018). Violence-related disparities experienced by Black youth and young adults: opportunities for prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 55(4), 462–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2018.05.017.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shorter-Gooden, K. (2004). Multiple resistance strategies: how African American women cope with racism and sexism. Journal of Black Psychology, 30(3), 406–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teitelman, A., McDonald, C. C., Wiebe, D. J., Thomas, N., Guerra, T., Kassam‐Adams, N., & Richmond, T. S. (2010). Youth’s strategies for staying safe and coping. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(7), 874–885.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. E., Bradshaw, C. P., Bottiani, J. H., McDaniel, H. L., & Debnam, K. J. (2021). Coping power in the city: promoting coping in African American male students. Professional School Counseling, 25(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X211040002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by Grant #2015-CK-BX-0023, awarded from the National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the National Institute of Justice.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Education and Human Development, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA

    Belinda E. Hernandez, Heather L. McDaniel & Catherine P. Bradshaw

Authors
  1. Belinda E. Hernandez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Heather L. McDaniel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Catherine P. Bradshaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Belinda E. Hernandez.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hernandez, B.E., McDaniel, H.L. & Bradshaw, C.P. Urban Adolescents’ Exposure to Violence and Racial Discrimination: Gender Differences in Coping and Mental Health. J Child Fam Stud 33, 939–953 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02731-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02731-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation