Abstract
This study aimed to better understand how autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and developmental coordination disorder (DCD) differ in types of praxis errors made on the Florida Apraxia Battery Modified (FAB-M) and the potential relationships between praxis errors and social deficits in ASD. The ASD group made significantly more timing sequencing errors in imitation of meaningful gestures, as well as more body-part-for-tool errors during gesture-to-command compared to the other two groups. In the ASD group, increased temporal errors in meaningful imitation were significantly correlated with poorer affect recognition and less repetitive behaviors. Thus, in ASD, aspects of imitation ability are related to socioemotional skills and repetitive behaviors.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adornetti, I., Ferretti, F., Chiera, A., Wacewicz, S., Żywiczyński, P., Deriu, V., Marini, A., Magni, R., Casula, L., Vicari, S., & Valeri, G. (2019). Do children with autism spectrum disorders understand pantomimic events? Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1382–1382. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01382
Alloway, T. P., Rajendran, G., & Archibald, L. M. D. (2008). Working memory in children with developmental disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(4), 372–382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409335214
Alloway, T. P., & Temple, K. J. (2007). A comparison of working memory profiles and learning in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder and moderate learning difficulties. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 473–487.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Ayres, A. J. (1989). Sensory integration and praxis tests. Western Psychological Services.
Bhat, A. N. (2020). Is motor impairment in autism spectrum disorder distinct from developmental coordination disorder? A report from the SPARK Study. Physical Therapy, 100(4), 633–644. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/pzz190
Bhat, A. N., Boulton, A. J., & Tulsky, D. S. (2022). A further study of relations between motor impairment and social communication, cognitive, language, functional impairments, and repetitive behavior severity in children with ASD using the SPARK study dataset. Autism Research.
Blank, R., Barnett, A. L., Cairney, J., Green, D., Kirby, A., Polatajko, H., Rosenblum, S., Smits-Engelsman, B., Sugden, D., Wilson, P., & Vinçon, S. (2019). International clinical practice recommendations on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of developmental coordination disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 61(3), 242–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.14132
Bodfish, J. W., Symons, F., & Lewis, M. (1999). The repetitive behavior scale: Test manual. Western Carolina Center Research Reports.
Bottema-Beutel, K., Kim, S. Y., & Crowley, S. (2019). A systematic review and meta-regression analysis of social functioning correlates in autism and typical development. Autism Research, 12(2), 152–175. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2055
Caçola, P., Miller, H. L., & Ossom Williamson, P. (2017). Behavioral comparisons in autism spectrum disorder and developmental coordination disorder: A systematic literature review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 38, 6–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2017.03.004
Carpenter, M., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (2002). Interrelations among social-cognitive skills in young children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(2), 91–106. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1014836521114
Cattaneo, L., Fabbri-Destro, M., Boria, S., Pieraccini, C., Monti, A., Cossu, G., & Rizzolatti, G. (2007). Impairment of actions chains in autism and its possible role in intention understanding. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(45), 17825–17830. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0706273104
Chang, S. H., & Yu, N. Y. (2016). Comparison of motor praxis and performance in children with varying levels of developmental coordination disorder. Human Movement Science, 48, 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2016.04.001
Chukoskie, L., Townsend, J., & Westerfield, M. (2013). Motor skill in autism spectrum disorders: A subcortical view. International Review of Neurobiology, 113, 207–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-418700-9.00007-1
Colombi, C., Liebal, K., Tomasello, M., Young, G., Warneken, F., & Rogers, S. J. (2009). Examining correlates of cooperation in autism: Imitation, joint attention, and understanding intentions. Autism, 13(2), 143–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/136236130809851
Conners, C. K. (2008). Conners 3rd edition: Manual (Vol. 14). Multi-Health Systems.
Cox, C. L., Uddin, L. Q., Di Martino, A., Castellanos, F. X., Milham, M. P., & Kelly, C. (2012). The balance between feeling and knowing: affective and cognitive empathy are reflected in the brain’s intrinsic functional dynamics. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(6), 727–737. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr051
Crucitti, J., Hyde, C., & Stokes, M. A. (2019). Hammering that nail: Varied praxis motor skills in younger autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(9), 3253–3262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04136-4
Cummins, A., Piek, J. P., & Dyck, M. J. (2005). Motor coordination, empathy, and social behaviour in school-aged children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 47(7), 437–442. https://doi.org/10.1017/S001216220500085X
Dadgar, H., Rad, J. A., Soleymani, Z., Khorammi, A., McCleery, J., & Maroufizadeh, S. (2017). The relationship between motor, imitation, and early social communication skills in children with autism. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 12(4), 236–240.
Dapretto, M., Davies, M. S., Pfeifer, J. H., Scott, A. A., Sigman, M., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Iacoboni, M. (2006). Understanding emotions in others: Mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders. Nature Neuroscience, 9(1), 28–30. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1611
Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
Dewey, D., Cantell, M., & Crawford, S. G. (2007). Motor and gestural performance in children with autism spectrum disorders, developmental coordination disorder, and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(2), 246–256. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617707070270
Dewey, D., Kaplan, B. J., Crawford, S. G., & Wilson, B. N. (2002). Developmental coordination disorder: Associated problems in attention, learning, and psychosocial adjustment. Human Movement Science, 21(5–6), 905–918. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-9457(02)00163-x
Dowell, L. R., Mahone, E. M., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2009). Associations of postural knowledge and basic motor skill with dyspraxia in autism: Implication for abnormalities in distributed connectivity and motor learning. Neuropsychology, 23(5), 563–570. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015640
Dziuk, M. A., Larson, J. C., Apostu, A., Mahone, E. M., Denckla, M. B., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2007). Dyspraxia in autism: Association with motor, social, and communicative deficits. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 49(10), 734–739. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00734.x
Edwards, L. A. (2014). A meta-analysis of imitation abilities in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research, 7(3), 363–380. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1379
Fabbri-Destro, M., Gizzonio, V., Bazzini, M. C., Cevallos, C., Cheron, G., & Avanzini, P. (2019). The relationship between pantomime execution and recognition across typically developing and autistic children. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 61, 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2019.01.008
Fournier, K. A., Hass, C. J., Naik, S. K., Lodha, N., & Cauraugh, J. H. (2010). Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: A synthesis and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(10), 1227–1240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3
Gibbs, J., Appleton, J., & Appleton, R. (2007). Dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder? Unravelling the enigma. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 92(6), 534–539. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.088054
Gizzonio, V., Avanzini, P., Campi, C., Orivoli, S., Piccolo, B., Cantalupo, G., Tassinari, C., Rizzolatti, G., & Fabbri-Destro, M. (2015). Failure in pantomime action execution correlates with the severity of social behavior deficits in children with autism: A praxis study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(10), 3085–3097. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2461-2
Green, D., Baird, G., Barnett, A. L., Henderson, L., Huber, J., & Henderson, S. E. (2002). The severity and nature of motor impairment in Asperger’s syndrome: A comparison with specific developmental disorder of motor function. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(5), 655–668. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00054
Green, D., Charman, T., Pickles, A., Chandler, S., Loucas, T. O. M., Simonoff, E., & Baird, G. (2009). Impairment in movement skills of children with autistic spectrum disorders. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 51(4), 311–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.03242.x
Hannant, P., Cassidy, S., Van de Weyer, R., & Mooncey, S. (2018). Sensory and motor differences in autism spectrum conditions and developmental coordination disorder in children: A cross-syndrome study. Human Movement Science, 58, 108–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2018.01.010
Harris, S. R., Mickelson, E. C. R., & Zwicker, J. G. (2015). Diagnosis and management of developmental coordination disorder. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 187(9), 659–665. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.140994
Heiser, M., Iacoboni, M., Maeda, F., Marcus, J., & Mazziotta, J. C. (2003). The essential role of Broca’s area in imitation. European Journal of Neuroscience, 17(5), 1123–1128. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02530.x
Henderson, S. E., Sugden, D. A., & Barnett, A. L. (2007). Movement assessment battery for children (2nd ed.). The Psychological Corporation.
Hilton, C., Zhang, Y., Whilte, M., Klohr, C., & Constantino, J. (2012). Motor impairment in sibling pairs concordant and discordant for autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 16(4), 430–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311423018
Hooker, J. L., Dow, D., Morgan, L., Schatschneider, C., & Wetherby, A. M. (2019). Psychometric analysis of the repetitive behavior scale-revised using confirmatory factor analysis in children with autism. Autism Research, 12(9), 1399–1410. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2159
Ingersoll, B., & Meyer, K. (2011). Examination of correlates of different imitative functions in young children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(3), 1078–1085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.12.001
Ingersoll, B., & Schreibman, L. (2006). Teaching reciprocal imitation skills to young children with autism using a naturalistic behavioral approach: Effects on language, pretend play, and joint attention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(4), 487–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0089-y
Jansiewicz, E. M., Goldberg, M. C., Newschaffer, C. J., Denckla, M. B., Landa, R., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2006). Motor signs distinguish children with high functioning autism and Asperger’s syndrome from controls. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(5), 613–621. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0109-y
Karras, H., Morin, D., Gill, K., Izadi-Najafabadi, S., & Zwicker, J. (2019). Health-related quality of life of children with developmental coordination disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 84, 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.05.012
Kaur, M., Srinivasan, S., & Bhat, A. N. (2018). Comparing motor performance, praxis, coordination, and interpersonal synchrony between children with and without autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Research in Developmental Disabilities, 72, 79–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.025
Kilroy, E., Cermak, S. A., & Aziz-Zadeh, L. (2019). A review of functional and structural neurobiology of the action observation network in autism spectrum disorder and developmental coordination disorder. Brain Sciences, 9(4), 75. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25312
Kilroy, E., Harrison, L., Butera, C., Jayashankar, A., Cermak, S., Kaplan, J., Williams, M., Haranin, E., Bookheimer, S., Dapretto, M., & Aziz-Zadeh, L. (2021). Unique deficit in embodied simulation in autism: An fMRI study comparing autism and developmental coordination disorder. Human Brain Mapping, 42(5), 1532–1546. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25312
Kilroy, E., Ring, P., Hossain, A., Nalbach, A., Butera, C., Harrison, L., Jayashankar, A., Vigen, C., Aziz-Zadeh, L., & Cermak, S. A. (2022). Motor performance, praxis, and social skills in autism spectrum disorder and developmental coordination disorder. Autism Research, 15(9), 1649–1664. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2774
Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (2007). NEPSY II: Clinical and interpretive manual. Harcourt Assessment.
Lam, K. S., & Aman, M. G. (2007). The repetitive behavior scale-revised: Independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(5), 855–866. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0213-z
Libby, S., Powell, S., Messer, D., & Jordan, R. (1997). Imitation of pretend play acts by children with autism and down syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(4), 365–383. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1025801304279
Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Bishop, S. L. (2012). Autism diagnostic observation schedule–2nd edition (ADOS-2). Western Psychological Services.
Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview-revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 659–685. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02172145
McAuliffe, D., Pillai, A. S., Tiedemann, A., Mostofsky, S. H., & Ewen, J. B. (2017). Dyspraxia in ASD: Impaired coordination of movement elements. Autism Research, 10(4), 648–652. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1693
McDuffie, A., Turner, L., Stone, W., Yoder, P., Wolery, M., & Ulman, T. (2007). Developmental correlates of different types of motor imitation in young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(3), 401–412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0175-1
Miller, H. L., Sherrod, G. M., Mauk, J. E., Fears, N. E., Hynan, L. S., & Tamplain, P. M. (2021). Shared features or co-occurrence? Evaluating symptoms of developmental coordination disorder in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(10), 3443–3455.
Ming, X., Brimacombe, M., & Wagner, G. C. (2007). Prevalence of motor impairment in autism spectrum disorders. Brain and Development, 29(9), 565–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2007.03.002
Mirenda, P., Smith, I. M., Vaillancourt, T., Georgiades, S., Duku, E., Szatmari, P., Bryson, S., Fombonne, E., Roberts, W., Volden, J., Waddel, C., & Zwaigenbaum, L. (2010). Validating the repetitive behavior scale-revised in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(12), 1521–1530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1012-0
Mody, M., Shui, A. M., Nowinski, L. A., Golas, S. B., Ferrone, C., O’Rourke, J. A., & McDougle, C. J. (2016). Communication deficits and the motor system: Exploring patterns of associations in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(1), 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2934-y
Mostofsky, S., Dubey, P., Jerath, V., Jansiewicz, E., Goldberg, M., & Denckla, M. (2006). Developmental dyspraxia is not limited to imitation in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12(3), 314–326. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617706060437
National Institute of Mental Health » Autism Spectrum Disorder. (2022). Autism spectrum disorder. Retrieved March 27, 2021 from NIH.gov website: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/autism-spectrum-disorders-asd/index.shtml
Ohgami, Y., Matsuo, K., Uchida, N., & Nakai, T. (2004). An fMRI study of tool-use gestures: Body part as object and pantomime. NeuroReport, 15(12), 1903–1906. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200408260-00014
Oldfield, R. C. (1971). The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh Inventory. Neuropsychologia, 9(1), 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(71)90067-4
Paquet, A., Olliac, B., Golse, B., & Vaivre-Douret, L. (2019). Nature of motor impairments in autism spectrum disorder: A comparison with developmental coordination disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1483486
Perra, O., Williams, J. H., Whiten, A., Fraser, L., Benzie, H., & Perrett, D. I. (2008). Imitation and ‘theory of mind’competencies in discrimination of autism from other neurodevelopmental disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2(3), 456–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2007.09.007
Pittet, I., Kojovic, N., Franchini, M., & Schaer, M. (2022). Trajectories of imitation skills in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 14(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-021-09412-y
Power, E., Code, C., Croot, K., Sheard, C., & Gonzalez Rothi, L. J. (2010). Florida Apraxia Battery–extended and revised sydney (FABERS): Design, description, and a healthy control sample. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(1), 1–18.
Ravizza, S. M., Solomon, M., Ivry, R. B., & Carter, C. S. (2013). Restricted and repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorders: The relationship of attention and motor deficits. Development and Psychopathology, 25(3), 773–784.
Rogers, S. J., Hepburn, S. L., Stackhouse, T., & Wehner, E. (2003). Imitation performance in toddlers with autism and those with other developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(5), 763–781. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00162
Rothi, L. J. G., & Heilman, K. M. (2014). Apraxia: The neuropsychology of action. Psychology Press.
Sakreida, K., Higuchi, S., Di Dio, C., Ziessler, M., Turgeon, M., Roberts, N., & Vogt, S. (2018). Cognitive control structures in the imitation learning of spatial sequences and rhythms—An fMRI study. Cerebral Cortex, 28(3), 907–923. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhw414
Scahill, L., Dimitropoulos, A., McDougle, C. J., Aman, M. G., Feurer, I. D., McCracken, J. T., Tierney, E., Pu, J., White, S., Lecavalier, L., Hallett, V., Bearss, K., King, B., Arnold, L. E., & Vitiello, B. (2014). Children’s Yale-Brown obsessive compulsive scale in autism spectrum disorder: Component structure and correlates of symptom checklist. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(1), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.09.018
Schertz, H. H., Odom, S. L., Baggett, K. M., & Sideris, J. H. (2016). Parent-reported repetitive behavior in toddlers on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(10), 3308–3316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2870-x
Stone, W. L., Ousley, O. Y., & Littleford, C. D. (1997). Motor imitation in young children with autism: What’s the object? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25(6), 475–485. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022685731726
Sumner, E., Leonard, H. C., & Hill, E. L. (2016). Overlapping phenotypes in autism spectrum disorder and developmental coordination disorder: A cross-syndrome comparison of motor and social skills. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(8), 2609–2620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2794-5
Sumner, E., Leonard, H. C., & Hill, E. L. (2018). Comparing attention to socially-relevant stimuli in autism spectrum disorder and developmental coordination disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46(8), 1717–1729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-017-0393-3
Tal Saban, M., & Kirby, A. (2019). Empathy, social relationship and co-occurrence in young adults with DCD. Human Movement Science, 63, 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2018.11.005
Vatandoust, L., & Hasanzadeh, R. (2018). The study of the emotion recognition and the cognitive failures of children with developmental coordination disorder. Iranian Rehabilitation Journal. https://doi.org/10.32598/irj.16.2.121
Vivanti, G., & Hamilton, A. (2014). Imitation in autism spectrum disorders. In F. R. Volkmar, S. J. Rogers, R. Paul, & K. A. Pelphrey (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders, (4th ed., Vol. 1), Ser Diagnosis, development, and brain mechanisms (pp. 278–301). Wiley.
Vivanti, G., Dissanayake, C., Zierhut, C., & Rogers, S. J. (2013). Brief report: Predictors of outcomes in the early start Denver model delivered in a group setting. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1717–1724. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1705-7
Wang, A. T., Dapretto, M., Hariri, A. R., Sigman, M., & Bookheimer, S. Y. (2004). Neural correlates of facial affect processing in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(4), 481–490. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200404000-00015
Wechsler, D. (2011). WASI-II: Wechsler Abbreviated Ccale of Intelligence. NCS Pearson.
Williams, J., Whiten, A., & Singh, T. (2004). A systematic review of action imitation in Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(3), 285–299. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JADD.0000029551.56735.3a
Wisdom, S. N., Dyck, M. J., Piek, J. P., Hay, D., & Hallmayer, J. (2007). Can autism, language and coordination disorders be differentiated based on ability profiles? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 16(3), 178–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0586-8
Young, G. S., Rogers, S. J., Hutman, T., Rozga, A., Sigman, M., & Ozonoff, S. (2011). Imitation from 12 to 24 months in autism and typical development: A longitudinal Rasch analysis. Developmental Psychology, 47(6), 1565. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025418
Zachor, D. A., Ilanit, T., & Itzchak, E. B. (2010). Autism severity and motor abilities correlates of imitation situations in children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4(3), 438–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2009.10.016
Acknowledgments
We thank all our participants and their families. We also thank all lab members and research assistants for their contributions to participant recruitment, data collection, and scoring, in particular Riley McGuire and Trinh Nguyen. We also give special thanks to Stewart Mostofsky and his team for training in scoring the FAB-M and Dr. Mary Margaret Windsor for her assistance and careful consideration of the FAB-M scoring and discussion. Research reported in this publication was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number R01HD079432. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.
Funding
Funding was provided by Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Grant no. R01HD079432).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
LAZ and SAC performed the conceptualization. LAZ, SAC, EK, CB, and LH performed the design. GA, AJ, EK, CB, LH, PR, AH, and AN performed the data collection. GA and AJ performed the data analysis. GA, AJ, LAZ, and SAC performed the data interpretation. GA, AJ, and LAZ prepared the manuscript initial draft. GA, AJ, LAZ, SAC, EK, CB, LH, PR, AH, and AN performed the manuscript editing. GA and AJ performed the figure creation.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors state no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Abrams, G., Jayashankar, A., Kilroy, E. et al. Differences in Praxis Errors in Autism Spectrum Disorder Compared to Developmental Coordination Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 54, 1113–1129 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05858-8
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05858-8