Abstract
In the United States (U.S.), premature mortality in adulthood from suicide, alcohol-related disease, and substance overdoses has increased steadily over the past two decades. To better understand these trends, it is necessary to first examine the harmful behaviors that often precede these preventable deaths (i.e., suicidal ideation and attempts, and harmful alcohol and substance use). Representing critical developmental periods in which psychopathology is most likely to emerge, childhood and adolescence provide an informative lens through which to investigate susceptibility to harmful behaviors. This article synthesizes current evidence describing these rising U.S. mortality rates and the prevalence rates of harmful behaviors linked to these types of mortality. A brief selective review of longitudinal research on harmful behaviors in relation to the most relevant categories of child and adolescent psychopathology is then provided. Finally, recommendations for future research and implications for prevention are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
In the figures, we describe mortality rates based on National Vital Statistics System Mortality File from the National Center for Health Statistics (https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data_access/vitalstatsonline.htm).
Material/Code Availability
N/A.
Notes
Data Source: National Vital Statistics System Mortality File from the National Center for Health Statistics and International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision codes for suicides (U03, X60–X84, and Y87.0), alcohol-related deaths (E24.4, F10, G31.2, G62.1, G72.1, I42.6, K29.2, K70, K85.2, K86.0, R78.0, X45, X65, and Y15) and overdose deaths (X40–X44, X60–X64, X85, and Y10–Y14). Note that, consistent with reports published by the National Center for Health Statistics, suicide, alcohol-related deaths, and overdose deaths are not mutually exclusive categories. Age-adjusted death rates were calculated using the direct method (Anderson & Rosenberg, 1998) and standard U.S. population estimates from 2000.
If race or Hispanic origin are not reported on death certificate, those deaths are excluded from the figure. Rates for 2021 are not included due to changes in the reporting of race in 2021 data.
Given the prevalence of multi-racial/ethnic self-identification and the reliance on limited and evolving categories of race and ethnicity in survey instruments, estimates of prevalence by race/ethnicity should be interpreted cautiously as homogeneity within groups over time may be low.
References
Anderson, R. N. & Rosenberg, H. M. (1998). Age standardization of death rates: Implementation of the year 2000 standard. National Vital Statistics Reports, 47(3), 1-17. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr47/nvs47_03.pdf
Kim, M., Buford, K., Ellis, A., & Davis-Kean, P. (2023). Inclusive, open, and reproducible developmental science. PsyArXiv, 1-55. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/93QM2
Watts, A. L., & Boness, C. L. (2022). A proposal to revise the title of HiTOP’s substance abuse subconstruct. Open Science Framework, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/ZMSCU
American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-text revision (DSM-5-TR; 5th ed.). Author.
Anderson, S. L., Zheng, Y., & McMahon, R. J. (2018). Do callous–unemotional traits and conduct disorder symptoms predict the onset and development of adolescent substance use? Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 49, 688–698.
Arfken, C. L., Owens, D. D., & Greenwald, M. K. (2020). US national treatment admissions with opioids and benzodiazepines. Drug and Alcohol Review, 39, 862–869. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.13129
Azagba, S., Shan, L., Latham, K., & Manzione, L. (2020). Trends in binge and heavy drinking among adults in the United States, 2011–2017. Substance Use & Misuse, 55(6), 990–997. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1717538
Beauchaine, T. P., Zisner, A. R., & Sauder, C. L. (2017). Trait impulsivity and the externalizing spectrum. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, 343–368. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093253
Beghi, M., & Rosenbaum, J. F. (2010). Risk factors for fatal and nonfatal repetition of suicide attempt: A critical appraisal. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 23(4), 349–355. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e32833ad783
Bekman, N. M., Winward, J. L., Lau, L. L., Wagner, C. C., & Brown, S. A. (2013). The impact of adolescent binge drinking and sustained abstinence on affective state. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.12096
Bentley, K. H., Franklin, J. C., Ribeiro, J. D., Kleiman, E. M., Fox, K. R., & Nock, M. K. (2016). Anxiety and its disorders as risk factors for suicidal thoughts and behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 43, 30–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.11.008
Bevilacqua, L., Hale, D., Barker, E. D., & Viner, R. (2018). Conduct problems trajectories and psychosocial outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 1239–1260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-1053-4
Bohnert, A. S. B. (2011). Association between opioid prescribing patterns and opioid overdose-related deaths. JAMA, 305(13), 1315–1321. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.370
Brignone, E., George, D. R., Sinoway, L., Katz, C., Sauder, C., Murray, A., Gladden, R., & Kraschnewski, J. L. (2020). Trends in the diagnosis of diseases of despair in the United States, 2009–2018: A retrospective cohort study. British Medical Journal Open, 10(10), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037679
Case, A., & Deaton, A. (2015). Rising morbidity and mortality in midlife among white non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(49), 15078–15083. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518393112
Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2021). Racial/ethnic differences in substance use, substance use disorders, and substance use treatment utilization among people aged 12 or older (2015–2019). (Publication No. PEP21–07–01–001). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Ciccarone, D. (2021). The rise of illicit fentanyls, stimulants, and the fourth wave of the opioid overdose crisis. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 34(4), 344–350. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000717
Committee on Rising Midlife Mortality Rates and Socioeconomic Disparities, Committee on Population, Committee on National Statistics, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, & National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2021). High and rising mortality rates among working-age adults (K. M. Harris, M. K. Majmundar, & T. Becker, Eds.; p. 25976). National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25976
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2020). The Fast Track program for children at risk: Preventing antisocial behavior. Guilford Press.
Conway, C. C., Forbes, M. K., & South, S. C. (2022). A Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) primer for mental health researchers. Clinical Psychological Science, 10(2), 236–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026211017834
Curtin, S. C., & Arias, E. (2019). Mortality trends by race and ethnicity among adults aged 25 and over: United States, 2000–2017. NCHS Data Brief, 342, 1–8. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/80172
Curtin, S. C., Garnett, M., & Ahmad, F. (2022). Provisional numbers and rates of suicide by month and demographic characteristics: United States, 2021. National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.). https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:120830
Dahl, R. E., Allen, N. B., Wilbrecht, L., & Suleiman, A. B. (2018). Importance of investing in adolescence from a developmental science perspective. Nature, 554(7693), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25770
Dyer, M. L., Easey, K. E., Heron, J., Hickman, M., & Munafò, M. R. (2019). Associations of child and adolescent anxiety with later alcohol use and disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Addiction, 114(6), 968–982. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14575
Edwards, A. C., Ohlsson, H., Mościcki, E., Crump, C., Sundquist, J., Lichtenstein, P., Kendler, K. S., & Sundquist, K. (2021). On the genetic and environmental relationship between suicide attempt and death by suicide. American Journal of Psychiatry, 178(11), 1060–1069. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20121705\
Eiden, R. D., Lessard, J., Colder, C. R., Livingston, J., Casey, M., & Leonard, K. E. (2016). Developmental cascade model for adolescent substance use from infancy to late adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 52(10), 1619–1633. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000199
Erol, A., & Karpyak, V. M. (2015). Sex and gender-related differences in alcohol use and its consequences: Contemporary knowledge and future research considerations. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 156, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.023
Erskine, H. E., Norman, R. E., Ferrari, A. J., Chan, G. C. K., Copeland, W. E., Whiteford, H. A., & Scott, J. G. (2016). Long-term outcomes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(10), 841–850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.06.016
Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2009). Situational and generalised conduct problems and later life outcomes: Evidence from a New Zealand birth cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(9), 1084–1092. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02070.x
Francis, A. R., Weyandt, L. L., Anastopoulos, A. D., DuPaul, G. J., & Shepard, E. (2022). Outcomes and predictors of stimulant misuse in college students with and without ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 26(5), 779–793. https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547211027650
Garnett, M., Curtin, S., & Stone, D. (2022). Suicide Mortality in the United States, 2000–2020. National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.). https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:114217
Gaydosh, L., Hummer, R. A., Hargrove, T. W., Halpern, C. T., Hussey, J. M., Whitsel, E. A., Dole, N., & Harris, K. M. (2019). The depths of despair among US adults entering midlife. American Journal of Public Health, 109(5), 774–780. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305002
Gee, D. G. (2021). When do sensitive periods emerge later in development? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 26(2), 97–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.12.001
Gili, M., Castellví, P., Vives, M., de la Torre-Luque, A., Almenara, J., Blasco, M. J., Cebrià, A. I., Gabilondo, A., Pérez-Ara, M. A., Miranda-Mendizábal, A., Lagares, C., Olegeur, P. B., Piqueras, J. A., Rodríguez-Jiménez, T., Rodríguez-Marin, J., Soto-Sanz, V., Alonso, J., & Roca, M. (2019). Mental disorders as risk factors for suicidal behavior in young people: A meta-analysis and systematic review of longitudinal studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 152–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.10.115
Godwin, J. W. & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2020). The Fast Track intervention’s impact on behaviors of despair in adolescence and young adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(50), 31748–31753. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2016234117
Goulter, N., Hur, Y. S., Jones, D. E., Godwin, J., McMahon, R. J., Dodge, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Lochman, J. E., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & Crowley, D. M. (2023). Kindergarten conduct problems are associated with monetized outcomes in adolescence and adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13837
Grant, B. F., Chou, S. P., Saha, T. D., Pickering, R. P., Kerridge, B. T., Ruan, W. J., Huang, B., Jung, J., Zhang, H., Fan, A., & Hasin, D. S. (2017). Prevalence of 12-month alcohol use, high-risk drinking, and DSM-IV alcohol use disorder in the United States, 2001–2002 to 2012–2013: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(9), 911–923. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2161
Groenman, A. P., Janssen, T. W. P., & Osterlaan, J. (2017). Childhood psychiatric disorders as risk factor for subsequent substance abuse: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(7), 556–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.05.004
Grucza, R. A., Sher, K. J., Kerr, W. C., Krauss, M. J., Lui, C. K., McDowell, Y. E., Hartz, S., Virdi, G., & Bierut, L. J. (2018). Trends in adult alcohol use and binge drinking in the early 21st-century United States: A meta-analysis of 6 national survey series. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 42(10), 1939–1950. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.13859
Gutin, I., Copeland, W., Godwin, J., Mullan Harris, K., Shanahan, L., & Gaydosh, L. (2023). Defining despair: Assessing the multidimensionality of despair and its association with suicidality and substance use in early to middle adulthood. Social Science & Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115764
Hales, C. M., Martin, C. B., & Gu, Q. (2020). Prevalence of prescription pain medication use among adults: United States, 2015–2018. NCHS Data Brief, no 369. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
Han, B. H., Moore, A. A., Sherman, S., Keyes, K. M., & Palamar, J. J. (2017). Demographic trends of binge alcohol use and alcohol use disorders among older adults in the United States, 2005–2014. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 170, 198–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.11.003
Hankin, B. L., & Cohen, J. R. (2020). Depression. In E. A. Youngstrom, M. J. Prinstein, E. J. Mash, & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Assessment of disorders in childhood and adolescence (5th ed., pp. 159–191). Guilford Press.
Hasin, D. S., Shmulewitz, D., & Keyes, K. (2019). Alcohol use and binge drinking among US men, pregnant and non-pregnant women ages 18–44: 2002–2017. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107590
Hedegaard, H., Bastian, B. A., Trinidad, J. P., Spencer, M., & Warner, M. (2018). Drugs most frequently involved in drug overdose deaths: United States, 2011–2016. National Vital Statistics Reports, 69(9), 1–14. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/61308
Hinshaw, S. P. (2018). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Controversy, developmental mechanisms, and multiple levels of analysis. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 14(1), 291–316. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050817-084917
Hubers, A. A. M., Moaddine, S., Peersmann, S. H. M., Stijnen, T., van Duijn, E., van der Mast, R. C., Dekkers, O. M., & Giltay, E. J. (2018). Suicidal ideation and subsequent completed suicide in both psychiatric and non-psychiatric populations: A meta-analysis. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 27(2), 186–198. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016001049
Hussong, A. M., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2013). Integrative data analysis in clinical psychology research. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 61–89. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185522
Hussong, A. M., Ennett, S. T., Cox, M. J., & Haroon, M. (2017). A systematic review of the unique prospective association of negative affect symptoms and adolescent substance use controlling for externalizing symptoms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 31(2), 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000247
Ivey-Stephenson, A. Z., Crosby, A. E., Hoenig, J. M., Gyawali, S., Park-Lee, E., &Hedden, S. L. (2022). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors among adults aged ≥18 years – United States, 2015–2019. MMWR Surveillance Summary, 71(No. SS-1), 1–19. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/6021
Kessler, R. C., Sampson, N. A., Berglund, P., Gruber, M. J., Al-Hamzawi, A., Andrade, L., Bunting, B., Demyttenaere, K., Florescu, S., de Girolamo, G., Gureje, O., He, Y., Hu, C., Huang, Y., Karam, E., Kovess-Masfety, V., Lee, S., Levinson, D., Medina Mora, M. E., & Wilcox, M. A. (2015). Anxious and non-anxious major depressive disorder in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 24(3), 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796015000189
Keyes, K. M., Jager, J., Mal-Sarkar, T., Patrick, M. E., Rutherford, C., & Hasin, D. (2019). Is there a recent epidemic of women’s drinking? A critical review of national studies. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 43(7), 1344–1359. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.14082
Keyes, K. M., Rutherford, C., Hamilton, A., Barocas, J. A., Gelberg, K. H., Mueller, P. P., Feaster, D. J., El-Bassel, N., & Cerdá, M. (2022). What is the prevalence of and trend in opioid use disorder in the United States from 2010 to 2019? Using multiplier approaches to estimate prevalence for an unknown population size. Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports, 3(100052), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dadr.2022.100052
King, K. M., Feil, M. C., Halvorson, M. A., Kosterman, R., Bailey, J. A., & Hawkins, J. D. (2020). A trait-like propensity to experience internalizing symptoms is associated with problem alcohol involvement across adulthood, but not adolescence. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 34(7), 756–771. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000589
King, L., Scheiring, G., & Nosrati, E. (2022). Deaths of despair in comparative perspective. Annual Review of Sociology, 48(1), 299–317. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-030320-031757
Klonsky, E. D., May, A. M., & Saffer, B. Y. (2016). Suicide, suicide attempts, and suicidal ideation. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12(1), 307–330. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093204
Klonsky, E. D., Saffer, B. Y., & Bryan, C. J. (2018). Ideation-to-action theories of suicide: A conceptual and empirical update. Current Opinion in Psychology, 22, 38–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.020
Koob, G. F., Powell, P., & White, A. (2020). Addiction as a coping response: Hyperkatifeia, deaths of despair, and COVID-19. American Journal of Psychiatry, 177(11), 1031–1037. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20091375
Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., Cicero, D. C., Conway, C. C., DeYoung, C. G., Eaton, N. R., Forbes, M. K., Hallquist, M. N., Latzman, R. D., Mullins-Sweatt, S. N., Ruggero, C. J., Simms, L. J., Waldman, I. D., Waszczuk, M. A., & Wright, A. G. (2021). The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A quantitative nosology based on consensus of evidence. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 17, 83–108. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-093304
Lansford, J. E., Godwin, J., McMahon, R. J., Crowley, M., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., Coie, J. D., & Dodge, K. A. (2021). Early physical abuse and adult outcomes. Pediatrics, 147(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-0873
Lee, S. S., Humphreys, K. L., Flory, K., Liu, R., & Glass, K. (2011). Prospective association of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance use and abuse/dependence: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 328–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.01.006
Linas, B. P., Savinkina, A., Barbosa, C., Mueller, P. P., Cerdá, M., Keyes, K., & Chhatwal, J. (2021). A clash of epidemics: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic response on opioid overdose. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 120, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2020.108158
Liu, J., Ran, G., Zhang, Q., Li, Y., & Zhang, Q. (2023). The association between callous–unemotional traits and suicide ideation among youth: A conditional process analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 328, 245–254.
Luderer, M., Ramos Quiroga, J. A., Faraone, S. V., Zhang-James, Y., & Reif, A. (2021). Alcohol use disorders and ADHD. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 128, 648–660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.07.010
Lynch, S. J., Sunderland, M., Newton, N. C., & Chapman, C. (2021). A systematic review of transdiagnostic risk and protective factors for general and specific psychopathology in young people. Clinical Psychology Review, 87(102036), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102036
Mathurin, P., & Bataller, R. (2015). Trends in the management and burden of alcoholic liver disease. Journal of Hepatology, 62(1), S38–S46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2015.03.006
Mattson, C. L., Tanz, L. J., Quinn, K., Kariisa, M., Patel, P., & Davis, N. L. (2021). Trends and geographic patterns in drug and synthetic opioid overdose deaths—United States, 2013–2019 MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70(6), 202–207.
McHugh, C. M., Corderoy, A., Ryan, C. J., Hickie, I. B., & Large, M. M. (2019). Association between suicidal ideation and suicide: Meta-analyses of odds ratios, sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value. British Journal of Psychiatry Open, 5(e18), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2018.88
McMahon, R. J., & Frick, P. J. (2019). Conduct and oppositional disorders. In M. J. Prinstein, E. A. Youngstrom, E. J. Mash, & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Treatment of disorders in childhood and adolescence (4th ed., pp. 102–172). Guilford Press.
Meque, I., Dachew, B. A., Maraviolla, J. C., Salom, C., & Alati, R. (2019). Externalizing and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence and the risk of alcohol use disorders in young adulthood: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 53(10), 965–975. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419844308
Miranda-Mendizabal, A., Castellví, P., Parés-Badell, O., Alayo, I., Almenara, J., Alonso, I., Blasco, M. J., Cebria, A., Gabilondo, A., Gili, M., Lagares, C., Piqueras, J. A., Rodriguez-Jiminez, T., Rodriguez-Marin, J., Roca, M., Soto-Sanz, V., Vilagut, G., & Alonso, J. (2019). Gender differences in suicidal behavior in adolescents and young adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. International Journal of Public Health, 64, 265–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-018-1196-1
Molina, B. S. G., Hinshaw, S. P., Eugene Arnold, L., Swanson, J. M., Pelham, W. E., Hechtman, L., Hoza, B., Epstein, J. N., Wigal, T., Abikoff, H. B., Greenhill, L. L., Jensen, P. S., Wells, K. C., Vitiello, B., Gibbons, R. D., Howard, A., Houck, P. R., Hur, K., Lu, B., & Marcus, S. (2013). Adolescent substance use in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (MTA) as a function of childhood ADHD, random assignment to childhood treatments, and subsequent medication. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(3), 250–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.12.014
Murphy S.L., Kochanek K.D., Xu J.Q., & Arias E. (2021) Mortality in the United States, 2020. National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.) Data Brief. https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:112079
Musci, R. J., Kush, J. M., Masyn, K. E., Esmaeili, M. A., Susukida, R., Goulter, N., & Wilcox, H. C. (2023). Psychosis symptom trajectories across childhood and adolescence in three longitudinal studies: An integrative data analysis with mixture modeling. Prevention Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-023-01581-7
Nigg, J. T. (2013). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and adverse health outcomes. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(2), 215–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.11.005
O’Donnell, J., Gladden, R. M., Mattson, C. L., Hunter, C. T., & Davis, N. L. (2020). Vital signs: Characteristics of drug overdose deaths involving opioids and stimulants—24 states and the District of Columbia, January–June 2019. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(35), 1189–1197.
Odgers, C. L., Moffitt, T. E., Broadbent, J. M., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Poulton, R., Sears, M. R., Thomson, M. W., & Caspi, A. (2008). Female and male antisocial trajectories: From childhood origins to adult outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 673–716. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457940800033
Palamar, J. J., Cottler, L. B., Goldberger, B. A., Severtson, S. G., Grundy, D. J., Iwanicki, J. L., & Ciccarone, D. (2022). Trends in characteristics of fentanyl-related poisonings in the United States, 2015–2021. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 48(4), 471–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2022.2081923
Patrick, M. E., Terry-McElrath, Y. M., Miech, R. A., Keyes, K. M., Jager, J., & Schulenberg, J. M. (2022). Alcohol use and the COVID-19 pandemic: Historical trends in drinking, contexts, and reasons for use among US adults. Social Science & Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114887
Polanczyk, G. V., Salum, G. A., Sugaya, L. S., Caye, A., & Rohde, L. A. (2015). Annual research review: A meta-analysis of the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(3), 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12381
Porras-Segovia, A., Baca-García, E., Courtet, P., Wainberg, M., & Oquendo, M. A. (2021). If suicide were COVID-19: A neglected cause of premature death. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 82(2), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.20l13702
Price-Feeney, M., Green, A. E., & Dorison, S. (2020). Understanding the mental health of transgender and nonbinary youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 66(6), 684–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.11.314
Rahimi-Ardabili, H., Feng, X., Nguyen, P.-Y., & Astell-Burt, T. (2022). Have deaths of despair risen during the COVID-19 pandemic? A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(19), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912835
Rehder, K., Lusk, J., & Chen, J. I. (2021). Deaths of despair: Conceptual and clinical implications. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 28(1), 40–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2019.10.002
Rehm, J., Samokhvalov, A. V., & Shield, K. D. (2013). Global burden of alcoholic liver diseases. Journal of Hepatology, 59(1), 160–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2013.03.007
Ribeiro, J. D., Huang, X., Fox, K. R., & Franklin, J. C. (2018). Depression and hopelessness as risk factors for suicide ideation, attempts and death: Meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 212(5), 279–286. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.27
Shanahan, L., & Copeland, W. E. (2021). Psychiatry and deaths of despair. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(7), 695–696. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.0256
Shanahan, L., Hill, S. N., Gaydosh, L. M., Steinhoff, A., Costello, E. J., Dodge, K. A., Harris, K. M., & Copeland, W. E. (2019). Does despair really kill? A roadmap for an evidence-based answer. American Journal of Public Health, 109(6), 854–858. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305016
Shen, Y., Chan, B. S. M., Huang, C., Cui, X., Liu, J., Lu, J., Patel, M., Verrico, C. D., Luo, X., & Zhang, X. Y. (2021). Suicidal behaviors and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A cross-sectional study among Chinese medical college students. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 258. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03247-6
Silva, C., Ribeiro, J. D., & Joiner, T. E. (2015). Mental disorders and thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and acquired capability for suicide. Psychiatry Research, 226(1), 316–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.01.008
Sitnick, S. L., Shaw, D. S., & Hyde, L. W. (2014). Precursors of adolescent substance use from early childhood and early adolescence: Testing a developmental cascade model. Development and Psychopathology, 26(1), 125–140. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000539
Solmi, M., Radua, J., Olivola, M., Croce, E., Soardo, L., Salazar de Pablo, G., Shin, J., II., Kirkbride, J. B., Jones, P., Kim, J. H., Kim, J. Y., Carvalho, A. F., Seeman, M. V., Correll, C. U., & Fusar-Poli, P. (2022). Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: Large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(1), 281–295. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7
Spencer, M., Curtin, S., & Garnett, M. (2022a). Alcohol-induced death rates in the United States, 2019–2020. National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.). https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:121795
Spencer, M., Miniño, A., & Warner, M. (2022b). Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 2001–2021. National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.). https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:122556
Stahre, M., Roeber, J., Kanny, D., Brewer, R. D., & Zhang, X. (2014). Contribution of excessive alcohol consumption to deaths and years of potential life lost in the United States. Preventing Chronic Disease. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd11.130293
Sterling, P., & Platt, M. L. (2022). Why deaths of despair are increasing in the US and not other industrial nations—Insights from neuroscience and anthropology. JAMA Psychiatry, 79(4), 368–374. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.4209
Suominen, K., Isometsä, E., Suokas, J., Haukka, J., Achte, K., & Lönnqvist, J. (2004). Completed suicide after a suicide attempt: A 37-year follow-up study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(3), 562–563. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.562
Valentine, S. E., & Shipherd, J. C. (2018). A systematic review of social stress and mental health among transgender and gender non-conforming people in the United States. Clinical Psychology Review, 66, 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.03.003
Vizard, T., Pearce, N., & Davis, J. (2018). Mental health of children and young people in England, 2017. UK: Health and Social Care Information Centre.
Wang, H., Abajobir, A. A., Abate, K. H., Abbafati, C., Abbas, K. M., Abd-Allah, F., Abera, S. F., Abraha, H. N., Abu-Raddad, L. J., Abu-Rmeileh, N. M. E., Adedeji, I. A., Adedoyin, R. A., Adetifa, I. M. O., Adetokunboh, O., Afshin, A., Aggarwal, R., Agrawal, A., Agrawal, S., Ahmad Kiadaliri, A., & Murray, C. J. L. (2017). Global, regional, and national under-5 mortality, adult mortality, age-specific mortality, and life expectancy, 1970–2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet, 390(10100), 1084–1150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31833-0
Witte, T. K., Gautier, J. M., Huang, X., Ribeiro, J. D., & Franklin, J. C. (2018). Is externalizing psychopathology a robust risk factor for suicidal thoughts and behaviors? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74, 1607–1625. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22625
Woolf, S. H., Chapman, D. A., Buchanich, J. M., Bobby, K. J., Zimmerman, E. B., & Blackburn, S. M. (2018). Changes in midlife death rates across racial and ethnic groups in the United States: Systematic analysis of vital statistics. BMJ. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k3096
Xu, J.Q., Murphy, S.L., Kochanek, K.D., & Arias, E. (2022). Mortality in the United States 2021 National Center for Health Statistics (US). Data Brief https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:122516.
Yockey, R. A., King, K., & Vidourek, R. (2021). Trends in suicidal behaviors among US adults 2015–2018. Crisis, 42(5), 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000732
Yoon, Y. H., & Chen, C. M. (2018). Surveillance report #111: Liver cirrhosis mortality in the United States: national, state, and regional trends, 2000–2015. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 1–75. https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/surveillance111/Cirr15.htm
Young, S., Adamo, N., Ásgeirsdóttir, B. B., Branney, P., Beckett, M., Colley, W., Cubbin, S., Deeley, Q., Farrag, E., Gudjonsson, G., Hill, P., Hollingdale, J., Kilic, O., Lloyd, T., Mason, P., Paliokosta, E., Perecherla, S., Sedgwick, J., Skirrow, C., & Woodhouse, E. (2020). Females with ADHD: An expert consensus statement taking a lifespan approach providing guidance for the identification and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in girls and women. BMC Psychiatry, 20(404), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02707-9
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the conceptualization, writing of the original draft, critical revisions of the work, and all authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. J.W.G created the visualizations.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Ethical Approval
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Yu, R.A., Goulter, N., Godwin, J.W. et al. Child and Adolescent Psychopathology and Subsequent Harmful Behaviors Associated with Premature Mortality: A Selective Review and Future Directions. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 26, 1008–1024 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-023-00459-y
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-023-00459-y