Budget impact analysis of chronic kidney disease mass screening test in Japan

Background Our recently published cost-effectiveness study on chronic kidney disease mass screening test in Japan evaluated the use of dipstick test, serum creatinine (Cr) assay or both in specific health checkup (SHC). Mandating the use of serum Cr assay additionally, or the continuation of current policy mandating dipstick test only was found cost-effective. This study aims to examine the affordability of previously suggested reforms. Methods Budget impact analysis was conducted assuming the economic model would be good for 15 years and applying a population projection. Costs expended by social insurers without discounting were counted as budgets. Results Annual budget impacts of mass screening compared with do-nothing scenario were calculated as ¥79–¥−1,067 million for dipstick test only, ¥2,505–¥9,235 million for serum Cr assay only and ¥2,517–¥9,251 million for the use of both during a 15-year period. Annual budget impacts associated with the reforms were calculated as ¥975–¥4,129 million for mandating serum Cr assay in addition to the currently used mandatory dipstick test, and ¥963–¥4,113 million for mandating serum Cr assay only and abandoning dipstick test. Conclusions Estimated values associated with the reform from ¥963–¥4,129 million per year over 15 years are considerable amounts of money under limited resources. The most impressive finding of this study is the decreasing additional expenditures in dipstick test only scenario. This suggests that current policy which mandates dipstick test only would contain medical care expenditure.


Introduction
A consensus has been established that chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a worldwide public health problem [1,2]. The effectiveness of its early detection and treatment to prevent progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and premature death from cardiovascular disease has become widely accepted [3], while the strategy of its screening is still under debate [4]. Whereas high-risk strategies such as routine screening for diabetes patients and as a part of initial evaluation of hypertension patients are pursued in Western countries [5,6], some argue that population strategies, such as mass screening, could be adopted in Asian countries where CKD prevalence is high [7].
Japan has a long history of mass screening programme for kidney diseases targeting school children and adults since the 1970s. Both urinalysis and measurement of serum creatinine (Cr) level have been mandated to detect glomerulonephritis in annual health checkup provided by workplace and community for adults aged C40-year old since 1992 [8]. However, glomerulonephritis was replaced by diabetic nephropathy as the leading cause of ESRD in 1998, and the focus of mass screening policy for adults was shifted to the control of lifestyle-related diseases. In 2008, the Japanese government launched a programme, specific health checkup (SHC) and Specific Counselling Guidance, focusing on metabolic syndrome to control lifestyle-related diseases, targeting all adults between the ages of 40 and 74 years [9]. This is a combined programme of mass screening followed by health education or referral to physicians. During the process of this development of SHC, different types of screening test for kidney diseases were discussed in the health policy arena [10]. Abandonment of dipstick test to check proteinuria was initially proposed by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, which was opposed by nephrologists who emphasised the significance of CKD. As a consequence, serum Cr assay was alternatively dropped and dipstick test remained in the list of mandatory test items [11]. From the viewpoint of CKD control, the current SHC and Specific Counselling Guidance are not adequate. Therefore, to present evidence regarding CKD screening test for the revision of SHC, which was due in 5 years from its start in 2008, the Japanese Society of Nephrology set up the Task Force for the Validation of Urine Examination as a Universal Screening. Since cost-effectiveness analysis provides crucial information for organising public health programmes such as mass screening, the task force conducted an economic evaluation as a part of their mission, which had been published elsewhere [12]. It concludes that the current policy which mandates dipstick test only is cost-effective, while a policy that mandates serum Cr assay is also costeffective.
However, it is said that there are five hurdles to overcome in the nationwide application of health intervention: quality, safety, efficacy, cost-effectiveness and affordability ( Fig. 1) [13,14]. Among these hurdles, 'cost-effective' in the economic evaluation framework means that it is acceptable for the society to sacrifice the total value of cumulative costs with discount over the time horizon to gain additional health outcomes brought by the suggested public health programme, whereas it does not directly mean affordability that the government or the third party payer such as social insurers are able to expend required cash to implement the policy. Prevention including mass screening always accompanies costs in advance and effectiveness in the future, which instantly raises a question about its impact on health care financing over time. This paper aims to examine the fifth hurdle, that is, affordability of CKD mass screening test under Japan's health system by estimating its impact on public health care expenditure [15]. The results would have implications for CKD screening programmes not only in Japan but also for other populations with high prevalence of CKD such as Asian countries [16,17].

Methods
We conducted a budget impact analysis of CKD screening test in SHC based on our previous economic model reporting cost-effectiveness [12]. As shown in Fig. 1, the budget impact analysis is to demonstrate budget changes in terms of cash flows, in which payer's perspective is always taken; health outcomes are excluded; and financial costs are included.
As the summary of the economic model constructed in our previous cost-effectiveness analysis is shown in Table 1, it evaluated two reform policy options based on the economic model comparing do-nothing scenario with dipstick test only, serum Cr assay only, and both. The two policies were: mandate the use of serum Cr assay in addition to the current dipstick test (Policy 1); or mandate the use of serum Cr assay only and abandon dipstick test (Policy 2). Policy 1 meant that the current SHC practice, which was a mandatory 100 % use of dipstick test with 60 % use of serum Cr assay at discretion, would become a mandatory 100 % use of both dipstick test and serum Cr assay; while Policy 2 meant that the current practice would switch to the mandatory 100 % use of serum Cr assay and no use (0 %) of dipstick test. The latter assumption was made by the change in diagnosis criterion of diabetes [18]   do-nothing scenario with dipstick test only scenario reflected the choice of continuing the current policy. Our budget impact analysis evaluated these policy options.
Health care budget impact is defined as a forecast of rates of use (or changes in rates of use) with their consequent short-and medium-term effects on budgets and other resources to help health service managers plan such changes [19]. We took the following three steps in our analysis: (1) the estimation of annual incremental budget per person, (2) the estimation of annual number of adults who would uptake SHC and (3) the estimation of budget impact by combining the results from (1) and (2).
The first step (1) was implemented on our economic model assuming that the annual economic model would be good for 15 years (Table 2). It included costs borne by adults and social insurers from the societal perspective, while costs of sectors other than health and productivity losses were uncounted. Costs expended by social insurers without discounting were counted as budgets. Costs for screening were fully borne by social insurers, and costs for further detailed examination and treatment at health facilities were 70 % reimbursed except in case of dialysis. Fixed co-payment for dialysis patients, ¥10,000 (US$100, US$1 =¥100) per month, was subtracted from the total cost. Assumed annual budgets per person are shown in Table 2.
In the second step (2), we used a population projection for Japan [20], and sex and age structure was applied to our annual economic model. We assumed that the uptake of SHC was fixed at 41.3 % for 15 years [21]. In the third step (3), estimated annual incremental budgets per person were multiplied by estimated annual number of adults who would uptake SHC.  Fig. 2. The breakdown of additional expenditures for screening and curative care is also reported in Table 3. Additional expenditures for screening are almost constant: ¥16 million (US$0.16 million) for dipstick test only, ¥8 million (US$0.08 million) for serum Cr assay only, ¥20 million (US$0.2 million) for dipstick test and serum Cr assay, and ¥18 million (US$0.18 million) for status quo. Decreases or increases during the 15 years are attributable to the changes in additional expenditure for curative care. Table 4 shows the results of budget impact analysis in the same way focusing on the two policy options. Compared with status quo, the budget impacts as total additional expenditure of Policy 1 which requires serum Cr assay increase from ¥975 million (US$9.75 million) in the first year (2012) to ¥4,129 million (US$41.29 million) in the fifteenth year (2026); and those of Policy 2 which requires serum Cr assay and abandons dipstick test increase from ¥963 million (US$9.63 million) to ¥4,113 million (US$41.13 million). These are drawn in Fig. 3 as well. Breakdowns of screening and curative care are also reported in Table 4. Additional expenditures for screening are almost constant: ¥2 million (US$0.02 million) for Policy 1, and ¥-10 million (US$-0.1 million) for Policy 2. Increases during the 15 years are attributable to the changes in additional expenditure for curative care.

Discussion
We estimate the budget impacts of CKD screening test in SHC, of which use has been found cost-effective elsewhere [12]. With regard to two reform policy options: mandate  Due caution is needed to interpret the results of our budget impact analysis, since they depend on crucial assumptions. Positive budget impacts are found to be attributable to additional expenditure for curative care; however, for example, the analysis does not take medical advancement or health system development into account. In the coming 15 years, innovative therapeutic agents to prevent progression to ESRD are expected [23][24][25][26], and community-based CKD control intervention under collaboration between general practitioners and nephrologists is under study [27]. More prevention of ESRD should bring significant reduction in budget impact, since treatment of ESRD is most costly. With regard to the mass screening test, other  Fig. 3 Black bars depict annual budget impacts associated with suggested mass screening policy reforms which mandate the use of serum Cr assay. Positive budget impacts on both panels imply that the reforms would result in the increase of medical care expenditure. a Policy 1 mandate serum Cr assay. b Policy 2 mandate serum Cr assay and abandon dipstick test. Cr creatinine tests such as microalbuminuria or cystatin C could be an option in the middle to long run [24], which would fundamentally change the background of this analysis. In the policy arena, the revision of SHC after its first five-year period was made in 2012, in which the continuation of current policy was chosen. And our study is in accord with keeping dipstick test in the mandatory test list. Further economic evaluation incorporating medical advancement or health system development is necessary for the future development of SHC and the next revision of CKD mass screening.