Abstract
Alveolar echinococcosis, one of the most serious and life-threatening zoonoses in the world, is caused by the metacestode larval stage of the fox-tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Mostly due to its accessibility to in vitro cultivation, this parasite has recently evolved into an experimental model system to study larval cestode development and associated host–parasite interaction mechanisms. Respective advances include the establishment of axenic in vitro cultivation systems for parasite larvae as well as culture systems by which the early development of metacestode vesicles from totipotent parasite stem cells can be reconstituted under controlled laboratory conditions. A series of evolutionarily conserved signalling molecules of the insulin, epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factor-β pathways that are able to functionally interact with corresponding host cytokines have been described in E. multilocularis and most likely play a crucial role in parasite development within the liver of the intermediate host. Furthermore, a whole genome sequencing project has been initiated by which a comprehensive picture on E. multilocularis cell–cell communication systems will be available in due time, including information on parasite cytokines that are secreted towards host tissue and thus might affect the immune response. In this article, an overview of our current picture on Echinococcus signalling systems will be given, and the potential to exploit these pathways as targets for anti-parasitic chemotherapy will be discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Brehm K, Spiliotis M, Zavala-Gongora R, Konrad C, Frosch M (2006) The molecular mechanisms of larval cestode development: first steps into an unknown world. Parasitol Int 55(Suppl):S15–S21
Eckert J, Deplazes P (2004) Biological, epidemiological, and clinical aspects of echinococcosis, a zoonosis of increasing concern. Clin Microbiol Rev 17(1):107–135
Garcia HH, Gonzalez AE, Evans CA, Gilman RH (2003) Taenia solium cysticercosis. Lancet 362(9383):547–556
Brehm K (2010) Echinococcus multilocularis as an experimental model in stem cell research and molecular host–parasite interaction. Parasitology 137(3):537–555
Reuter M, Kreshchenko N (2004) Flatworm asexual multiplication implicates stem cells and regeneration. Can J Zool 82(2):334–356
Rossi L, Salvetti A, Batistoni R, Deri P, Gremigni V (2008) Planarians, a tale of stem cells. Cell Mol Life Sci 65(1):16–23
Sanchez Alvarado A (2006) Planarian regeneration: its end is its beginning. Cell 124(2):241–245
Brehm K, Spiliotis M (2008) Recent advances in the in vitro cultivation and genetic manipulation of Echinococcus multilocularis metacestodes and germinal cells. Exp Parasitol 119(4):506–515
Hemphill A, Gottstein B (1995) Immunology and morphology studies on the proliferation of in vitro cultivated Echinococcus multilocularis metacestodes. Parasitol Res 81(7):605–614
Jura H, Bader A, Hartmann M, Maschek H, Frosch M (1996) Hepatic tissue culture model for study of host–parasite interactions in alveolar echinococcosis. Infect Immun 64(9):3484–3490
Hemphill A, Spicher M, Stadelmann B, Mueller J, Naguleswaran A, Gottstein B, Walker M (2007) Innovative chemotherapeutical treatment options for alveolar and cystic echinococcosis. Parasitology 134(Pt 12):1657–1670
Brehm K, Wolf M, Beland H, Kroner A, Frosch M (2003) Analysis of differential gene expression in Echinococcus multilocularis larval stages by means of spliced leader differential display. Int J Parasitol 33(11):1145–1159
Brehm K, Jensen K, Frosch M (2000) mRNA trans-splicing in the human parasitic cestode Echinococcus multilocularis. J Biol Chem 275(49):38311–38318
Spiliotis M, Tappe D, Sesterhenn L, Brehm K (2004) Long-term in vitro cultivation of Echinococcus multilocularis metacestodes under axenic conditions. Parasitol Res 92(5):430–432
Di Marco E, Pierce JH, Aaronson SA, Di Fiore PP (1990) Mechanisms by which EGF receptor and TGF α contribute to malignant transformation. Nat Immun Cell Growth Regul 9(3):209–221
Kobayashi M, Hirako M, Minato Y, Sasaki K, Horiuchi R, Domeki I (1997) Rat hepatoma Reuber H-35 cells produce factors that promote the hatching of mouse embryos cultured in vitro. Biol Reprod 56(4):1041–1049
Johnson GR, Saeki T, Gordon AW, Shoyab M, Salomon DS, Stromberg K (1992) Autocrine action of amphiregulin in a colon carcinoma cell line and immunocytochemical localization of amphiregulin in human colon. J Cell Biol 118(3):741–751
Spiliotis M, Brehm K (2009) Axenic in vitro cultivation of Echinococcus multilocularis metacestode vesicles and the generation of primary cell cultures. Methods Mol Biol 470:245–262
Spiliotis M, Lechner S, Tappe D, Scheller C, Krohne G, Brehm K (2008) Transient transfection of Echinococcus multilocularis primary cells and complete in vitro regeneration of metacestode vesicles. Int J Parasitol 38(8–9):1025–1039
Mehlhorn H, Eckert J, Thompson RC (1983) Proliferation and metastases formation of larval Echinococcus multilocularis. II. Ultrastructural investigations. Z Parasitenkd 69(6):749–763
Gauci C, Merli M, Muller V, Chow C, Yagi K, Mackenstedt U, Lightowlers MW (2002) Molecular cloning of a vaccine antigen against infection with the larval stage of Echinococcus multilocularis. Infect Immun 70(7):3969–3972
Gottstein B, Hemphill A (2008) Echinococcus multilocularis: the parasite-host interplay. Exp Parasitol 119(4):447–452
Brehm K, Spiliotis M (2008) The influence of host hormones and cytokines on Echinococcus multilocularis signalling and development. Parasite 15(3):286–290
Kingsley DM (1994) The TGF-β superfamily: new members, new receptors, and new genetic tests of function in different organisms. Genes Dev 8(2):133–146
Fernandez R, Tabarini D, Azpiazu N, Frasch M, Schlessinger J (1995) The Drosophila insulin receptor homolog: a gene essential for embryonic development encodes two receptor isoforms with different signaling potential. EMBO J 14(14):3373–3384
Beall MJ, Pearce EJ (2002) Transforming growth factor-β and insulin-like signalling pathways in parasitic helminths. Int J Parasitol 32(4):399–404
Loverde PT, Osman A, Hinck A (2007) Schistosoma mansoni: TGF-β signaling pathways. Exp Parasitol 117(3):304–317
Hewitson JP, Grainger JR, Maizels RM (2009) Helminth immunoregulation: the role of parasite secreted proteins in modulating host immunity. Mol Biochem Parasitol 167(1):1–11
Fausto N (2000) Liver regeneration. J Hepatol 32(1 Suppl):19–31
Harraga S, Godot V, Bresson-Hadni S, Mantion G, Vuitton DA (2003) Profile of cytokine production within the periparasitic granuloma in human alveolar echinococcosis. Acta Trop 85(2):231–236
Xu CP, Ji WM, van den Brink GR, Peppelenbosch MP (2006) Bone morphogenetic protein-2 is a negative regulator of hepatocyte proliferation downregulated in the regenerating liver. World J Gastroenterol 12(47):7621–7625
Babitt JL, Huang FW, Xia Y, Sidis Y, Andrews NC, Lin HY (2007) Modulation of bone morphogenetic protein signaling in vivo regulates systemic iron balance. J Clin Invest 117(7):1933–1939
Kinoshita K, Iimuro Y, Otogawa K, Saika S, Inagaki Y, Nakajima Y, Kawada N, Fujimoto J, Friedman SL, Ikeda K (2007) Adenovirus-mediated expression of BMP-7 suppresses the development of liver fibrosis in rats. Gut 56(5):706–714
Sugimoto H, Yang C, LeBleu VS, Soubasakos MA, Giraldo M, Zeisberg M, Kalluri R (2007) BMP-7 functions as a novel hormone to facilitate liver regeneration. FASEB J 21(1):256–264
Shojaee-Moradie F, Powrie JK, Sundermann E, Spring MW, Schuttler A, Sonksen PH, Brandenburg D, Jones RH (2000) Novel hepatoselective insulin analog: studies with a covalently linked thyroxyl-insulin complex in humans. Diabetes Care 23(8):1124–1129
Hubbard SR, Till JH (2000) Protein tyrosine kinase structure and function. Annu Rev Biochem 69:373–398
Dissous C, Ahier A, Khayath N (2007) Protein tyrosine kinases as new potential targets against human schistosomiasis. Bioessays 29(12):1281–1288
Konrad C, Kroner A, Spiliotis M, Zavala-Gongora R, Brehm K (2003) Identification and molecular characterisation of a gene encoding a member of the insulin receptor family in Echinococcus multilocularis. Int J Parasitol 33(3):301–312
Spiliotis M, Kroner A, Brehm K (2003) Identification, molecular characterization and expression of the gene encoding the epidermal growth factor receptor orthologue from the fox-tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Gene 323:57–65
Khayath N, Vicogne J, Ahier A, BenYounes A, Konrad C, Trolet J, Viscogliosi E, Brehm K, Dissous C (2007) Diversification of the insulin receptor family in the helminth parasite Schistosoma mansoni. FEBS J 274(3):659–676
Vicogne J, Cailliau K, Tulasne D, Browaeys E, Yan YT, Fafeur V, Vilain JP, Legrand D, Trolet J, Dissous C (2004) Conservation of epidermal growth factor receptor function in the human parasitic helminth Schistosoma mansoni. J Biol Chem 279(36):37407–37414
Zhang W, Liu HT (2002) MAPK signal pathways in the regulation of cell proliferation in mammalian cells. Cell Res 12(1):9–18
Spiliotis M, Tappe D, Bruckner S, Mosch HU, Brehm K (2005) Molecular cloning and characterization of Ras- and Raf-homologues from the fox-tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 139(2):225–237
Spiliotis M, Konrad C, Gelmedin V, Tappe D, Bruckner S, Mosch HU, Brehm K (2006) Characterisation of EmMPK1, an ERK-like MAP kinase from Echinococcus multilocularis which is activated in response to human epidermal growth factor. Int J Parasitol 36(10–11):1097–1112
Gelmedin V, Spiliotis M, Brehm K (2009) Molecular characterisation of MEK1/2- and MKK3/6-like mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MAPKK) from the fox tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Int J Parasitol doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2009.10.009 (in press)
Spiliotis M, Brehm K (2004) Echinococcus multilocularis: identification and molecular characterization of a Ral-like small GTP-binding protein. Exp Parasitol 107(3–4):163–172
Gelmedin V, Caballero-Gamiz R, Brehm K (2008) Characterization and inhibition of a p38-like mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) from Echinococcus multilocularis: antiparasitic activities of p38 MAPK inhibitors. Biochem Pharmacol 76(9):1068–1081
Siles-Lucas M, Felleisen RS, Hemphill A, Wilson W, Gottstein B (1998) Stage-specific expression of the 14-3-3 gene in Echinococcus multilocularis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 91(2):281–293
Hubert K, Zavala-Gongora R, Frosch M, Brehm K (2004) Identification and characterization of PDZ-1, a N-ERMAD specific interaction partner of the Echinococcus multilocularis ERM protein Elp. Mol Biochem Parasitol 134(1):149–154
Siles-Lucas Mdel M, Gottstein B (2003) The 14-3-3 protein: a key molecule in parasites as in other organisms. Trends Parasitol 19(12):575–581
Stetak A, Hoier EF, Croce A, Cassata G, Di Fiore PP, Hajnal A (2006) Cell fate-specific regulation of EGF receptor trafficking during Caenorhabditis elegans vulval development. EMBO J 25(11):2347–2357
Nohe A, Keating E, Knaus P, Petersen NO (2004) Signal transduction of bone morphogenetic protein receptors. Cell Signal 16(3):291–299
ten Dijke P, Hill CS (2004) New insights into TGF-β-Smad signalling. Trends Biochem Sci 29(5):265–273
Massague J, Seoane J, Wotton D (2005) Smad transcription factors. Genes Dev 19(23):2783–2810
Zavala-Gongora R, Kroner A, Bernthaler P, Knaus P, Brehm K (2006) A member of the transforming growth factor-β receptor family from Echinococcus multilocularis is activated by human bone morphogenetic protein 2. Mol Biochem Parasitol 146(2):265–271
Zavala-Gongora R, Kroner A, Wittek B, Knaus P, Brehm K (2003) Identification and characterisation of two distinct Smad proteins from the fox-tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Int J Parasitol 33(14):1665–1677
Zavala-Gongora R, Derrer B, Gelmedin V, Knaus P, Brehm K (2008) Molecular characterisation of a second structurally unusual AR-Smad without an MH1 domain and a Smad4 orthologue from Echinococcus multilocularis. Int J Parasitol 38(2):161–176
Gelmedin V, Zavala-Gongora R, Fernandez C, Brehm K (2005) Echinococcus multilocularis: cloning and characterization of a member of the SNW/SKIP family of transcriptional coregulators. Exp Parasitol 111(2):115–120
Folk P, Puta F, Skruzny M (2004) Transcriptional coregulator SNW/SKIP: the concealed tie of dissimilar pathways. Cell Mol Life Sci 61(6):629–640
Osman A, Niles EG, Verjovski-Almeida S, LoVerde PT (2006) Schistosoma mansoni TGF-β receptor II: role in host ligand-induced regulation of a schistosome target gene. PLoS Pathog 2(6):e54
Beall MJ, Pearce EJ (2001) Human transforming growth factor-β activates a receptor serine/threonine kinase from the intravascular parasite Schistosoma mansoni. J Biol Chem 276(34):31613–31619
Gomez-Escobar N, Gregory WF, Maizels RM (2000) Identification of tgh-2, a filarial nematode homolog of Caenorhabditis elegans daf-7 and human transforming growth factor β, expressed in microfilarial and adult stages of Brugia malayi. Infect Immun 68(11):6402–6410
Berriman M, Haas BJ, LoVerde PT, Wilson RA, Dillon GP, Cerqueira GC, Mashiyama ST, Al-Lazikani B, Andrade LF, Ashton PD, Aslett MA, Bartholomeu DC, Blandin G, Caffrey CR, Coghlan A, Coulson R, Day TA, Delcher A, DeMarco R, Djikeng A, Eyre T, Gamble JA, Ghedin E, Gu Y, Hertz-Fowler C, Hirai H, Hirai Y, Houston R, Ivens A, Johnston DA, Lacerda D, Macedo CD, McVeigh P, Ning Z, Oliveira G, Overington JP, Parkhill J, Pertea M, Pierce RJ, Protasio AV, Quail MA, Rajandream MA, Rogers J, Sajid M, Salzberg SL, Stanke M, Tivey AR, White O, Williams DL, Wortman J, Wu W, Zamanian M, Zerlotini A, Fraser-Liggett CM, Barrell BG, El-Sayed NM (2009) The genome of the blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni. Nature 460(7253):352–358
Freitas TC, Jung E, Pearce EJ (2009) A bone morphogenetic protein homologue in the parasitic flatworm, Schistosoma mansoni. Int J Parasitol 39(3):281–287
Freitas TC, Jung E, Pearce EJ (2007) TGF-β signaling controls embryo development in the parasitic flatworm Schistosoma mansoni. PLoS Pathog 3(4):e52
Bernthaler P, Epping K, Schmitz G, Deplazes P, Brehm K (2009) Molecular characterization of EmABP, an apolipoprotein A-I binding protein secreted by the Echinococcus multilocularis metacestode. Infect Immun 77(12):5564–5571
Aguilar-Diaz H, Bobes RJ, Carrero JC, Camacho-Carranza R, Cervantes C, Cevallos MA, Davila G, Rodriguez-Dorantes M, Escobedo G, Fernandez JL, Fragoso G, Gaytan P, Garciarubio A, Gonzalez VM, Gonzalez L, Jose MV, Jimenez L, Laclette JP, Landa A, Larralde C, Morales-Montor J, Morett E, Ostoa-Saloma P, Sciutto E, Santamaria RI, Soberon X, de la Torre P, Valdes V, Yanez J (2006) The genome project of Taenia solium. Parasitol Int 55:S127–S130
Fernandez C, Gregory WF, Loke P, Maizels RM (2002) Full-length-enriched cDNA libraries from Echinococcus granulosus contain separate populations of oligo-capped and trans-spliced transcripts and a high level of predicted signal peptide sequences. Mol Biochem Parasitol 122(2):171–180
Guo X, Wang XF (2009) Signaling cross-talk between TGF-β/BMP and other pathways. Cell Res 19(1):71–88
Reuter S, Jensen B, Buttenschoen K, Kratzer W, Kern P (2000) Benzimidazoles in the treatment of alveolar echinococcosis: a comparative study and review of the literature. J Antimicrob Chemother 46(3):451–456
Brehm K, Kronthaler K, Jura H, Frosch M (2000) Cloning and characterization of β-tubulin genes from Echinococcus multilocularis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 107(2):297–302
Wilhelm SM, Carter C, Tang L, Wilkie D, McNabola A, Rong H, Chen C, Zhang X, Vincent P, McHugh M, Cao Y, Shujath J, Gawlak S, Eveleigh D, Rowley B, Liu L, Adnane L, Lynch M, Auclair D, Taylor I, Gedrich R, Voznesensky A, Riedl B, Post LE, Bollag G, Trail PA (2004) BAY 43-9006 exhibits broad spectrum oral antitumor activity and targets the RAF/MEK/ERK pathway and receptor tyrosine kinases involved in tumor progression and angiogenesis. Cancer Res 64(19):7099–7109
Delaney AM, Printen JA, Chen H, Fauman EB, Dudley DT (2002) Identification of a novel mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase activation domain recognized by the inhibitor PD 184352. Mol Cell Biol 22(21):7593–7602
Ying QL, Wray J, Nichols J, Batlle-Morera L, Doble B, Woodgett J, Cohen P, Smith A (2008) The ground state of embryonic stem cell self-renewal. Nature 453(7194):519–523
Wagner G, Laufer S (2006) Small molecular anti-cytokine agents. Med Res Rev 26(1):1–62
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank all those colleagues and students working on their theses in my laboratory at the Institute of Hygiene and Microbiology (University of Würzburg) who, over the last 7 years, have contributed to the results mentioned in this review. Katja Klöpper, Dirk Radloff and Monika Bergmann are thanked for excellent technical assistance during this time. Work of the authors was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through Sonderforschungsbereich 479.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This article is published as part of a Special Issue on Pathogen Variability and Host Response in Infectious Disease.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brehm, K. The role of evolutionarily conserved signalling systems in Echinococcus multilocularis development and host–parasite interaction. Med Microbiol Immunol 199, 247–259 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00430-010-0154-1
Received:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00430-010-0154-1