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Cortical bone development, maintenance and porosity: genetic alterations in humans and mice influencing chondrocytes, osteoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes

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Abstract

Cortical bone structure is a crucial determinant of bone strength, yet for many years studies of novel genes and cell signalling pathways regulating bone strength have focused on the control of trabecular bone mass. Here we focus on mechanisms responsible for cortical bone development, growth, and degeneration, and describe some recently described genetic-driven modifications in humans and mice that reveal how these processes may be controlled. We start with embryonic osteogenesis of preliminary bone structures preceding the cortex and describe how this structure consolidates then matures to a dense, vascularised cortex containing an increasing proportion of lamellar bone. These processes include modelling-induced, and load-dependent, asymmetric cortical expansion, which enables the cortex’s transition from a highly porous woven structure to a consolidated and thickened highly mineralised lamellar bone structure, infiltrated by vascular channels. Sex-specific differences emerge during this process. With aging, the process of consolidation reverses: cortical pores enlarge, leading to greater cortical porosity, trabecularisation and loss of bone strength. Each process requires co-ordination between bone formation, bone mineralisation, vascularisation, and bone resorption, with a need for locational-, spatial- and cell-specific signalling pathways to mediate this co-ordination. We will discuss these processes, and a number of cell-signalling pathways identified in both murine and human genetic studies to regulate cortical bone mass, including signalling through gp130, STAT3, PTHR1, WNT16, NOTCH, NOTUM and sFRP4.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Emma C. Walker for assistance in preparing the figures and tables for this manuscript.

Funding

Tsuyoshi Isojima was supported by Travel Grants from Mochida Memorial Foundation for Medical and Pharmacological Research and The Foundation for Growth Science, Japan. Natalie Sims is supported by an NHMRC Senior Research Fellowship. St. Vincent’s Institute acknowledges the support of the Victorian State Government’s Operational Infrastructure Support program.

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  1. St. Vincent’s Institute of Medical Research, 9 Princes St, Fitzroy, VIC, 3122, Australia

    Tsuyoshi Isojima & Natalie A. Sims

  2. Department of Pediatrics, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan

    Tsuyoshi Isojima

  3. Department of Medicine at St. Vincent’s Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia

    Natalie A. Sims

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  1. Tsuyoshi Isojima
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NAS conceived of the article, TI performed the literature search, both NAS and TI drafted sections of the review, and both critically revised the work; both authors approve of the final submission.

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Correspondence to Natalie A. Sims.

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Isojima, T., Sims, N.A. Cortical bone development, maintenance and porosity: genetic alterations in humans and mice influencing chondrocytes, osteoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 78, 5755–5773 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-021-03884-w

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