Abstract
Sir Turnbull’s observation about football as a legacy of British imperialism is correct in the case of the former ‘colony’ of Hong Kong since it is still the most popular sport, of both the participant and spectator varieties. His other point regarding the use of language does not apply. While English is the most commonly used second language for many Hong Kong people, the f-word is certainly not as widely used as the more powerful and colourful Cantonese vulgar language. What then, did the British Empire really leave Hong Kong people and society?
When the British Empire finally sank beneath the waves of history, it would leave behind it only two monuments: one was the game of Association Football, the other was the expression of ‘Fuck off’.
—Richard Turnbull, the penultimate Governor of Aden, quoted in Ferguson (2004)
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Notes
- 1.
It should be noted that in 1971, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 2908 by a 99:5 vote to remove Hong Kong and Macau from the U.N. list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. The word colony is used interchangeably with ‘colony’ and readers are reminded of such interpretation.
- 2.
As some of the major post-World War II political and social events will be covered in the forthcoming chapters, this part places more emphasis on the pre- World War II history.
- 3.
A similar positive standard-definition image of colonial legacies has been recycled in the post-colonial era, nourishing radical localism in Hong Kong’s civil society (see Chap. 5).
- 4.
It should be noted that in 1971, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 2908 by a 99:5 vote to remove Hong Kong and Macau from the U.N. list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, hence cleared the sovereignty dispute by ‘officially’ announced that Hong Kong was not a colony but an entity under colonial rule. Readers should interpret the word ‘colony’ throughout this book with reference to the above terms and timelines.
- 5.
Lange (2009, 2004) also focused on former British colonies and basically affirmed the same argument.
- 6.
Earlier enquiry on the formulation of “Hong Kong’s core values” can be traced to The Ethos of the Hong Kong Chinese by Lau and Kuan (1988/1995). A similar discussion for the British Empire in general is found in Ferguson. The list of institutions credited to the British Empire could be much longer but here we focus only on those most commonly cited in local discussion.
- 7.
For example, in a 2014 survey conducted by CUHK IAPS on views on Hong Kong’s core values, 92.7% of respondents agreed “rule of law” is a core value of Hong Kong, which was also the highest level among those values surveyed and was followed by “just and corruption-free” (92.3%), social stability (88.2%), and freedom (88.1%).
- 8.
Hong Kong has ranked number one for 25 years on the Heritage Foundation’s Index of Economic Freedom. For instance, HK’s business freedom scores a full mark in 2015. See Heritage Foundation: http://www.heritage.org/index/country/hongkong; an update of the latest development, the Heritage Foundation has excluded Hong Kong from 2021 Index of Economic Freedom, see ‘Government disappointed by Hong Kong’s exclusion from 2021 Index of Economic Freedom.” March 4, HKSAR Press Release.
- 9.
As Lee (1998) pointed out, self-censorship among market-driven “information newspaper” gradually emerged as the transition in 1997 approached. Lee classified “Information paper” as those newspaper that enjoyed high credibility (e.g. Hong Kong Economic Journal, South China Morning Post, Ming Pao, Sing Tao Jih Pao etc.), compared to “story newspaper” (e.g. Apple Daily, Oriental Daily News etc.) and the “party press” (like Wen Wei Po, Ta Kung Pao etc.).
- 10.
Hong Kong Chronicles. Hong Kong Chronicles Institute, https://www.hkchronicles.org.hk/.
- 11.
Lau (1982) theorized this situation using such concepts as “a minimally-integrated social-political system” and “utilitarian familism”.
- 12.
For example, see Lazarus (2014).
- 13.
King (1975) helped coin this concept of “administrative absorption of politics” in Hong Kong.
- 14.
“Agency” is the capacity of an individual to act according to his or her own will. It is a sociological term in contrast to “structure” that limits individual choices of action.
- 15.
- 16.
A survey conducted by the British army documented existence of large village settlements (2000) on the Southern part (Chek-chu or Stanley) of the Hong Kong Island. The survey was reported in “The Hongkong Gazelle”, published in the Chinese Repository [《中國叢報》]. (See https://www.thestandnews.com/culture/你可曾記起香爐/).
- 17.
In 1841, China was defeated in the First Opium War, which resulted in British’s first occupation of Hong Kong in 1843. Conflicts over the opium trade continued after the establishment of the British crown colony and quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. This resulted in the expansion of the colony in 1860 to include the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutter’s Island under the Convention of Peking. Conflicts between the East and West did not end with the cooling down of hostility between the two imperial powers after England backed the Qing government in suppressing the Taiping rebellion.
- 18.
Conflicts between the local Hakka and the Punti were cultivated by two destructive events in Qing’s history: The Great Clearance Order (1655–1699) and the Hakka-Punti Clan War (1854–1867). The civil war had a profound impact on rural politics in Hong Kong and made the colonial strategy of “divide and rule” possible.
- 19.
The widespread belief that the Hakkas came later to the area of Hong Kong and their relationship with the Punti was solely a “conflictual” one is disputed by Hayes (2012): Hakkas arrived as early as the first Punti (Cantonese), intermarriage between Hakka and Punti was common, mixed villages existed peacefully, and some Hakkas were Cantonese speaking Punti in Southern China before they came to Hong Kong, whereas Punti could have been Hakkas in the distant past.
- 20.
See “Infographic: Scots in Hong Kong” (2014).
- 21.
William Jardine and James Matheson set up their company first in Guangzhou on 1 July 1832, and promoted the founding of Hong Kong in 1836. The Jardine Matheson Group was the centre of trade in early colonial Hong Kong, and recorded some of the “firsts” in the modernization of Hong Kong. It purchased the first plots of land in Hong Kong at East Point for 565 pounds in 1841 Along with other British merchants, the Jardine Matheson Group cultivated a regional network and monopolized a number of industries.
- 22.
Limited space does not allow us to describe how other Asians (e.g. Japanese), Europeans, and Eurasians pursued opportunities in Hong Kong. Europeans in early colonial Hong Kong generally lived a rather separate, if not completely segregated, life and most had minimal contacts with the local Chinese. See Carroll (2007) for a description of the lifestyles of Europeans and Eurasians in early colonial Hong Kong.
- 23.
Only the most successful merchants with the most influential social networks would be elected into the Tung Wah Group (Sinn, 2003, p. 8). By 1881 when local Chinese merchants were the largest owners of real estate in Hong Kong and contributed 90 percent of the colony’s revenue, the power of the Tung Wah Group in overseeing Chinese affairs in the colony had increased commensurately (Sinn, 2003, p. 84).
- 24.
This also marked the beginning of the administrative absorption of politics in Hong Kong. See King (1975) for a modern version of the process after the two 1960s riots.
- 25.
These include: The Republican Revolution in 1912, the anti-imperialist Canton-Hong Kong Strike in 1925–1926, Japan’s imperialist expansion and occupation of Hong Kong in 1941–1945, the Chinese Civil War in 1946–1949, the 1950–1953 Korean War, the decolonization movement in Asia, and the Double Tenth riots by pro-Nationalist factions in 1956.
- 26.
After the 1967 leftist riots—a spillover from the Cultural Revolution in the mainland—politics concerning the Greater China region faded out from Hong Kong for a short period until the beginning of the Sino-British negotiations over Hong Kong’s future.
- 27.
British India (1947), British Mandate of Palestine, Burma, and Ceylon (1948), British Malaya (1957), Kingdom of Sarawak, North Borneo, and Singapore (1963), and Brunei (1984).
- 28.
See Table 1 GDP by major expenditure component (a) At current market prices in Census and Statistics Department (2017).
- 29.
However, Lui (2012) examined the MacLehose Era closely and argued many development projects had been started by the colonial government before Sir Murray MacLehose assumed his position as Governor, hence the common conception of a miraculous MacLehose Era was to some extent a mythical Era as well.
- 30.
A Quote from George Orwell (1951).
- 31.
See Cap 5 Official Languages Ordinance [Originally 1974, February 15].
- 32.
In recent years, this core value has been fiercely challenged but defended by the local legal community as in the notable speech delivered by Chief Justice Geoffrey Ma in 2015.
- 33.
- 34.
The Corruption Perceptions Index ranks countries/territories based on how corrupt a country’s public sector is perceived to be. Higher rank means less perceived corruption. See Transparency International (n.d.).
- 35.
Hong Kong ranked 22nd in terms of HDI among 148 countries in the report. See UNDP (2010, Table 13 Education, p. 192).
- 36.
See Lee (2007).
- 37.
Some of the post-1970s social conflicts (e.g., the clash between the ICAC and police) are not highlighted here due to space limitations. They will be covered in other chapters.
- 38.
In studies of Asian colonial history, “colonial modernity” is another concept articulated to analyze the multifaceted effects of colonialism. See Barlow (1997).
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Chiu, S.W., Siu, K.Y. (2022). Hong Kong as a Crown Jewel of the British Empire: Colonial History and Legacy. In: Hong Kong Society. Hong Kong Studies Reader Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5707-8_1
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