Skip to main content

Reading Difficulties

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

This chapter begins with a brief discussion of a number of learning theories that have influenced contemporary approaches to the understanding and teaching of reading. The concept of learning difficulties is introduced and a working definition is established as the foundation for further discussion in subsequent chapters. The term learning difficulties is proposed as an appropriate definition for a discussion of the broad and complex nature of reading comprehension problems the children encounter while reading and comprehending texts. It introduces a model for classifying reading comprehension difficulties based on the ‘Simple View of Reading’. This model has been widely accepted a method to classify the broad types of reading difficulties encountered by many children. The model conceptualises reading comprehension as the product of two dimensions: listening comprehension and word decoding. While this seems to explain many of the reading difficulties that children experience it is asserted that the role of metacognition, should be included as a third dimension.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anderson, J.R., and G.H. Bower. 1971. On an associative trace for sentence memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour 10: 673–680.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aram, D.N. 1997. Hyperlexia: Reading without meaning in young students. Topics in Language Disorders 17(3): 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arthur, M. 2001. Problems in literacy and numeracy. In Integration and inclusion, ed. P. Foreman, 139–168. Victoria: Nelson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, L., M.J. Dreher, and J.T. Guthrie. 2000. Why teachers should promote reading engagement. In Engaging young readers: Promoting achievement and motivation, ed. L. Baker, M.J. Dreher, and J.T. Guthrie, 1–16. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. 1978. The self-system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist 33: 344–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, M.R. 1955. Relationships between interest and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Research 49: 283–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D.V.M., and M.J. Snowling. 2004. Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: Same or different? Psychological Bulletin 130: 858–886.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Block, C.C., and M. Pressley. 2007. Best practices in teaching comprehension. In Best practices in literacy instruction, 3rd ed, ed. L.B. Gambrell, L.M. Morrow, and M. Pressley, 264–282. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botting, N. 2007. Comprehension difficulties in students with specific language impairment and pragmatic language impairment. In Students’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective, ed. K. Cain and J. Oakhill, 81–103. London: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowers, J. 2002. Challenging the widespread assumption that connectionism and distributed representations go hand-in-hand. Cognitive Psychology 45(3): 413–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cadman, A. 1976. Learning difficulties in children and adults: Report of the House of Represen­tatives Select Committee on specific learning difficulties. Canberra: Australian Government Printing Services (Chair).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cain, K. 2007. Deriving word meanings from context: Does explanation facilitate contextual analysis? Journal of Research in Reading 30(4): 347–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cain, K., and J. Oakhill. 2007. Reading comprehension difficulties: Correlates, causes, and consequences. In Students’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective, ed. K. Cain and J. Oakhill, 41–75. London: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catts, H.W., T.P. Hogan, and M.E. Fey. 2003. Subgrouping poor readers on the basis of individual differences in reading-related abilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities 36: 151–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, K.F., and M.F. Graves. 2004. Scaffolding students’ comprehension of text. The Reading Teacher 58(6): 570–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cline, T. 2000. Multilingualism and dyslexia: Challenges for research and practice. Dyslexia 6: 3–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Culican, S.J., and M. Emmitt. 2002. Putting literacy in the middle: Key learnings from the middle years literacy research project. Literacy Learning in the Middle Years 10: 9–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFord, D., C. Lyons, and G. Pinnell. 1991. Bridges to literacy: Learning from reading recovery. Portsmouth: Heinermann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Durrant, C., and B. Green. 2000. Literacy and the new technologies in school education: Meeting the l(IT)eracy challenge? The Australian Journal of Language and Literacy 23: 89–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farris, P.J., C.J. Fuhler, and M.P. Walther. 2004. Teaching reading: A balanced approach for today’s classrooms. Boston: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fielding-Barnsley, R., Hay, I., and Ashman, A. 2005. Phonological awareness: Necessary but not sufficient. National conference of the Australian Association of Special Education, Brisbane, 23–25 Sept 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fogarty, J., and D. Greaves. 2004. The overlooked role of phonological processing abilities for successful Reading Recovery program outcomes. In Learning difficulties: Multiple perspectives, ed. B.A. Knight and W. Scott, 51–65. Frenchs Forrest: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freebody, P., and J. Frieberg. 2001. Re-discovering practical reading activities in homes and schools. Journal of Research in Reading 24: 222–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geva, E. 2000. Issues in the assessment of reading disabilities in L2 students: Beliefs and research evidence. Dyslexia 6: 13–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geva, E., and L. Verthoven. 2000. Introduction: The development of second language reading in primary students-research issues and trends. Scientific Studies of Reading 4(4): 261–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillet, J.W., and C. Temple. 1994. Understanding reading problems: Assessment and instruction, 4th ed, 13–56. New York: Harper Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonnerman, L.M., M.S. Seidenberg, and E.S. Andersen. 2007. Graded semantic and phonological similarity effects in priming: Evidence for a distributed connectionist approach to morphology. Journal of Experimental Psychology 136(2): 323–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gough, P.B., and W. Tunmer. 1986. Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education 7: 6–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, D. 2003. Children and print: Reading. In Literacies and learners, ed. D. Green and R. Campbell, 113–129. Frenchs Forest: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson, L., and L.S. Siegel. 2001. The evils of the use of IQ tests to define learning disabilities in first- and second-language learners. The Reading Teacher 55(1): 48–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunning, T.G. 2006. Assessing and correcting reading and writing difficulties, 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie, J.T., and M.H. Davis. 2003. Motivating the struggling readers in middle school through an engagement model of classroom practice. Reading and Writing Quarterly 19: 59–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hareli, S., and B. Weiner. 2002. Social emotions and personality inferences: A scaffold for a new direction in the study of achievement motivation. Educational Psychologist 37: 183–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, E.L., M.H. Raskind, R.J. Goldburg, and K.L. Herman. 2002. Stages of acceptance of a learning disability: the impact of labelling. Learning Disability Quarterly 25: 3–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson, J., H. Whiteley, C. Smith, and L. Connors. 2004. The early identification of dyslexia: Children with English as an additional language. Dyslexia 10: 179–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Idol, L. 1988. Johnny can’t read: Does the fault lie with the book, the teacher, or Johnny? Remedial and Special Education, l9, 8–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joshi, M., and P.G. Aaron. 2000. The component model of reading: Simple view of reading made a little more complex. Reading Psychology 21: 85–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamhi, A., and H. Catts. 2002. The language basis of reading: Implications for classification and treatment of children with reading disabilities. In Speaking, reading, and writing in children with language learning disabilities: New paradigms in research and practice, ed. K.G. Butler and E. Silliman, 45–72. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Pub.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendeou, P., R. Savage, and P. Van den Broek. 2009. Revising the simple view of reading. British Journal of Educational Psychology 79: 353–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, J.R., and J.S. Savage. 2008. Can the simple view deal with the complexities of reading? Literacy 42(2): 75–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kroll, B. 1999. Social constructivist theory and its relationship to effective teaching of students with learning difficulties. In Learning disabilities: Advocacy and action, ed. P. Westwood and W. Scott, 21–28. Melbourne: Australian Resource Educators’ Association Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leach, J.M., H.S. Scarborough, and L. Rescorla. 2003. Late-emerging reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology 95: 211–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leekam, S. 2007. Language comprehension difficulties in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. In Children’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective, ed. C. Cain and J. Oakhill, 104–127. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, J.W. 2003. Learning disabilities: Theories, diagnosis, and teaching strategies 9th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesaux, N.K., E. Geva, K. Koda, L.S. Siegel, and T. Shanahan. 2008. Development of literacy in second-language learners. In Developing reading and writing in second-language learners, ed. D. August and T. Shanahan, 27–59. New York: Roughtledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linnenbrink, E.A., and P.R. Pintrich. 2003. The Role of self-efficacy beliefs in student engagement in the classroom. Reading and Writing Quarterly 19: 119–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Louden, W., L.K.S. Chan, J. Elkins, D. Greaves, H. House, M. Milton, S. Nichols, J. Rivalland, M. Rohl, and C. van Kraayennoord. 2000. Mapping the territory, primary students with learning difficulties: Literacy and numeracy, Vols. 1, 2 & 3, Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luke, A., and P. Freebody. 1999. A map of possible practices: Further notes on the four resources model. Practically Primary, ALEA 4: 5–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manset-Williamson, G., and J.M. Nelson. 2005. Balanced, strategic reading instruction for upper- elementary and middle school students with reading disabilities: A comparative study of two approaches. Learning Disability Quarterly 28: 59–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCaslin, M., and D.T. Hickey. 2001. Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: A Vygotskian view. In Self-regulated learning and academic achievement, ed. B.J. Zimmerman and D.H. Schunk, 227–252. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNaughton, S., M. Lai, S. MacDonald, and S. Farry. 2004. Designing more effective teaching of comprehension in culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms in New Zealand. The Australian Journal of Language and Literacy 27: 184–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nation, K., P. Clarke, and M.J. Snowling. 2002. General cognition ability in children with reading comprehension difficulties. British Journal of Psychology 72: 549–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oakhill, J., and K. Cain. 2007. Introduction to comprehension development. In Children’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective, ed. K. Cain and J. Oakhill, 3–40. London: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, M. 2000. Connectionist modelling in psychology: A localist manifesto. Behavioural and Brain Sciences 23: 443–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palincsar, A.S., and L. Klenk. 1992. Fostering literacy learning in supportive contexts. Journal of Learning Difficulties 25: 211–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paris, S.G., and E.R. Oka. 1989. Strategies for comprehending text and coping with reading difficulties. Learning Disability Quarterly 12: 32–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paris, S.G., and P.N. Winograd. 1990. How metacognition can promote academic learning and instruction. In Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction, ed. B.F. Jones and L. Idol, 15–51. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. 2007. Reading ability: Lexical Quality to Comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading 11(4): 357–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. 1965. The stages of the intellectual development of the child. In Readings in child develop­ment and personality, 2nd ed, ed. P.H. Mussen, J.J. Conger, and J. Kagan, 291–298. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plaut, D.C., J.L. McClelland, M.S. Seidenberg, and K. Patterson. 1996. Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review 103: 56–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poplin, M.S., and S. Stone. 1992. Paradigm shifts in instructional strategies: From reductionism to holistic/ constructivism. In Controversial issues confronting special education: Divergent perspectives, ed. W. Stainback and S. Stainback, 153–179. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M., E. Wood, V.E. Woloshin, V. Martin, A. King, and D. Menke. 1992. Encouraging mindful use of prior knowledge: Attempting to construct explanatory answers facilitates learning. Educational Psychologist 27: 91–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, S.K. 2000. Cognition, 5th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reid, J., and B. Green. 2004. Displacing method(s)?: Historical perspective in the teaching of reading. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy 27: 12–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richman, L. (1995). Peaceful coexistence: Autism, Aspergers, hyperlexia. American Hyperlexic Association Newsletter, Fall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, G.L. 2001. Problems in literacy and numeracy. In Integration and Inclusion, ed. P. Foreman, 167–229. Victoria: Nelson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rohl, M., and J. Rivalland. 2002. Literacy learning difficulties in Australian primary schools: Who are the students identified and how do their schools and teachers support them? The Australian Journal of Language and Literacy 25: 19–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, M., and M. Anstey. 2005. Identity and text: Developing self-conscious readers. The Australian Journal of Language and Literacy 26: 9–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samuels, S.J. 1978. Why children fail to learn and what to do about it. Exceptional Children 53: 7–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. 2003. Self-efficacy for reading and writing: Influence of modelling, goal setting, and self-evaluation. Reading and Writing Quarterly 19: 159–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D.H. 2005. Commentary on self-regulation in school contexts. Learning and Instruction 15: 173–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scruggs, T.E., and M.A. Mastropieri. 2002. On babies and bathwater: Addressing the problems of identification of learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly 25: 155–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seidenberg, M.S., and J.L. McClelland. 1990. More words but still no lexicon: Reply to Besner et al. (1990). Psychological Review 97: 447–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, L.S. 2003. IQ-discrepancy definitions and the diagnosis of RD: Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Learning Difficulties 36: 2–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siemens, G. 2008. Learning and knowing in networks: Changing roles for educators and designers. Paper 105: University of Georgia IT Forum. http://it.coe.uga.edu/itforum/Paper105/Siemens.pdf

  • Slattery, L. 1997. Improve literacy or lose funds. The Australian, 16 Sept 1997, p. 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snowling, M., and U. Firth. 1997. Comprehension in hyperlexic readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 42: 392–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K.E. 1986. Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly 21: 360–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K.E., and A.E. Cunningham. 1993. Where does knowledge come from? Specific associations between print exposure and information acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology 85: 211–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Symons, S., and M. Preseley. 1993. Prior knowledge affects text search success and extraction of information. Reading Research Quarterly 28: 251–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilstra, J., K. McMaster, P. Van der Broek, P. Kendeou, and D. Rapp. 2009. Simple but complex: Components of the simple view of reading across grade levels. Journal of Research in Reading 32(4): 383–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiu, R.D., L.A. Thompson, and B.A. Lewis. 2003. The role of IQ in a component model of reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities 36: 424–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tunmer, W.E., J.W. Chapman, K.T. Greaney, and J.E. Prochnow. 2002. The contribution of educational psychology to intervention research and practice. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 49: 11–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Kraayenoord, C. 2002. Learning difficulties. In Educating children with divers abilities, ed. A. Ashman and J. Elkins, 388–435. Sydney: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, S., and L.S. Fuchs. 2003. Redefining learning disabilities as inadequate response to instruction: The promise and potential problems. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 18: 137–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L.S. 1978. Mind and society. Cambridge: MIT press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiten, W. 1998. Psychology: Themes and variations, 4th ed. Pacific Grove: International Thomas Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westwood, P. 2004. The affective components of difficulty in learning: Why prevention is better than attempted cure. In Learning difficulties: Multiple perspectives, ed. B.A. Knight and W. Scott, 187–202. Frenchs Forest: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westwood, P. 2007. Commonsense methods for children with special educational needs: Strategies for the regular classroom, 5th ed. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolley, G.E. 2006. Comprehension difficulties after year 4: Actioning appropriately. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties 11(3): 125–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B.J. 2002. Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Into Practice 41: 64–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gary Woolley .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Woolley, G. (2011). Reading Difficulties. In: Reading Comprehension. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1174-7_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics