Abstract
Currently, organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) have reached the stage of commercialization, and there have been intense efforts to use them in various applications from small- and medium-sized mobile devices to illumination equipment and large TV screens. In particular, room-temperature phosphorescent materials have become core OLED materials as alternatives to conventionally used fluorescent materials because devices made with phosphorescent materials exhibit excellent light-emitting performance with internal electroluminescence efficiency (ηint) of nearly 100%. However, phosphorescent materials have several intrinsic problems, such as their structure being limited to organic metal compounds containing rare metals, for example, Ir, Pt, Au, and Os, and difficulty in realizing stable blue light emission. Therefore, the development of new materials has been anticipated. In this chapter, first, we shortly review the progress of OLED materials and device architectures mainly based on fluorescence (the first generation) and phosphorescence (the second generation) emitters. Then, we mention the third-generation OLED using a new light-emitting mechanism called thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF). Recently, highly efficient TADF, which had been difficult to realize with conventional molecular design, has been achieved by very sophisticated molecular structures, indicating unlimited freedom of molecular design in carbon-based materials. This has led to the realization of ultimate OLEDs that are made of common organic compounds without precious metals and can convert electricity to light at nearly ηint = 100%. Further, we mention the recent progress of NIR-OLEDs.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
H. Akamatsu, H. Inokuchi, J. Chem. Phys. 18, 810 (1950)
M. Pope, C.E. Swenberg, Electronic Processes in Organic Crystals and Polymers (Oxford University Press, 1999)
C. Adachi, T. Tsutsui, S. Saito, Appl. Phys. Lett. 55, 1489 (1989)
W. Helfrich, W.G. Schneider, Phys. Rev. Lett. 14, 229 (1965)
W. Helfrich, W.G. Schneider, J. Chem. Phys. 44, 2902 (1966)
P.S. Vincentt, W.A. Barlow, R.A. Hann, G.G. Roberts, Thin Solid Films 94, 171 (1982)
C.W. Tang, S.A. Vanslyke, Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 913 (1987)
C.W. Tang, S.A. Vanslyke, C.H. Chen, J. Appl. Phys. 65, 3610 (1989)
R.H. Partridge, Polymer 24, 748 (1983)
J.H. Burroughes, D.D. Bradley, A.R. Brown, R.N. Marks, K. Mackay, R.H. Friend, P.L. Burns, A.B. Holmes, Nature 347, 539 (1990)
C.E. Wayne, R.P. Wayne, Photochemistry (Oxford Chemistry Primers, 1995)
E. Aminaka, T. Tsutsui, S. Saito, J. Appl. Phys. 79, 8808 (1996)
J.S. Kim, P.K.H. Ho, N.C. Greenham, R.H. Friend, J. Appl. Phys. 88, 1073 (2000)
C. Adachi, M.A. Baldo, M.E. Thompson, S.R. Forrest, J. Appl. Phys. 90, 5048 (2001)
C. Adachi, M.A. Baldo, S.R. Forrest, Phys. Rev.B 62, 10967 (2000)
T. Förster, Discuss. Faraday Soc. 27, 7 (1959)
D.L. Dexter, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 836 (1953)
B.P. Lyons, A.P. Monkman, Phys. Rev. B 71, 235201 (2005)
C. Murawski, K. Leo, M.C. Gather, Adv. Mater. 25, 6801 (2013)
M.A. Baldo, D.F. O'Brien, Y. You, A. Shoustikov, S. Sibley, M.E. Thompson, S.R. Forrest, Nature 395, 151 (1998)
J. Kalinowski, J. Mezyk, F. Meinardi, R. Tubino, M. Cocchi, D. Virgili, J. Appl. Phys. 98, 063532 (2005)
S.D. Babenko, V.A. Benderskii, V.I. Gol'Danskii, A.G. Lavrushko, V.P. Tychinskii, Chem. Phys. Lett. 8, 598 (1971)
D. Kasemann, R. Brückner, H. Fröb, K. Leo, Phys. Rev. B 84, 115208 (2011)
M.A. Baldo, R.J. Holmes, S.R. Forrest, Phys. Rev. B 66, 035321 (2002)
S. Reineke, K. Walzer, K. Leo, Phys. Rev. B 75, 125328 (2007)
D. Song, S. Zhao, H. Aziz, Adv. Funct. Mater. 21, 2311 (2011)
M.C. Gather, A. Kohnen, K. Meerholz, Adv. Mater. 23, 233 (2011)
S. Reineke, M. Thomschke, B. Lussem, K. Leo, Rev. Mod. Phys. 85, 1245 (2013)
J. Kido, K. Hongawa, K. Okuyama, K. Nagai, Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 815 (1994)
H.A. Al Attar, A.P. Monkman, M. Tavasli, S. Bettington, M.R. Bryce, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 121101 (2005)
G. Schwartz, K. Fehse, M. Pfeiffer, K. Walzer, K. Leo, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 083509 (2006)
Y. Tomita, C. May, M. Toerker, J. Amelung, M. Eritt, F. Loeffler, C. Luber, K. Leo, K. Walzer, K. Fehse, Q. Huang, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 253501 (2007)
Y.R. Sun, N.C. Giebink, H. Kanno, B.W. Ma, M.E. Thompson, S.R. Forrest, Nature 440, 908 (2006)
T.W. Lee, T. Noh, B.K. Choi, M.S. Kim, D.W. Shin, J. Kido, Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 043301 (2008)
H. Kim, Y. Byun, R.R. Das, B.K. Choi, P.S. Ahn, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 093512 (2007)
J.P.J. Markham, S.-C. Lo, S.W. Magennis, P.L. Burn, I.D.W. Samuel, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 2645 (2002)
F. Villani, P. Vacca, G. Nenna, O. Valentino, G. Burrasca, T. Fasolino, C. Minarini, D.D. Sala, J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 13398 (2009)
J. Ju, Y. Yamagata, T. Higuchi, Adv. Mater. 21, 4343 (2009)
H. Yersin, Highly Efficient OLEDs with phosphorescent Materials (Willey-VCH, 2008)
W. Zhu, W. Mo, M. Yaun, W. Yang, Y. Cao, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 2045 (2002)
C. Jiang, W. Yang, J. Pengm, S. Xiao, Y. Cao, Adv. Mater. 16, 537 (2004)
M. Sudhakar, P.I. Djurovich, T.E. Hogen-Esch, M.E. Thompson, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 7769 (2003)
A. van Dijken, J.J.A.M. Bastiaansen, N.M.M. Kiggen, B.M.W. Langeveld, C. Rothe, A. Monkman, I. Bach, P. Stossel, K. Brunner, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 7718 (2004)
S.A. Choulis, V.E. Choong, A. Patwardhan, M.K. Mathai, F. So, Adv. Funct. Mater. 16, 1075 (2006)
B.C. Krummacher, M.K. Mathai, V.E. Choong, S.A. Choulis, F. So, A. Winnacker, Org. Electron. 7, 313 (2006)
J.A. Cheng, C.H. Chen, C.H. Liao, Chem. Mater. 16, 2862 (2004)
J. Qiao, L.D. Wang, J.F. Xie, G.T. Lei, G.S. Wu, Y. Qui, Chem. Commun. 4560 (2005)
Y. Shirota, J. Mater. Chem. 15, 75 (2005)
N. Rehmann, D. Hertel, K. Meerholz, H. Beckers, S. Heun, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 103507 (2007)
G.J. Zhou, W.Y. Wong, B. Yao, Z. Xie, L. Wang, J. Mater. Chem. 18, 1799 (2008)
Y.R. Do, Y.C. Kim, Y.W. Song, C.O. Cho, H. Jeon, Y.J. Lee, S.H. Kim, Y.H. Lee, Adv. Mater. 15(14), 1214 (2003)
S. Lamansky, P. Djurovich, D. Murphy, F. Abdel-Razzaq, H.-E. Lee, C. Adachi, P.E. Burrows, S.R. Forrest, M.E. Thompson, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123, 4304 (2001)
N. Tessler, G.J. Denton, R.H. Friend, Nature 382, 695 (1996)
T. Tsutsui, S. Saito, Organic Multilayer-Dye Electroluminescent Diodes: Is There Any Difference with Polymer LED? (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1993)
L.J. Rothberg, A.J. Lovinger, J. Mater. Res. 11, 3174 (1996)
J.C. Deaton, S.C. Switalski, D.Y. Kondakov, R.H. Young, T.D. Pawlik, S.B. Harkins, A.J.M. Miller, S.F. Mickenberg, J.C. Peters, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132, 9499 (2010)
O. Bolton, L. Kangwon, H.-J. Kim, K.Y. Lin, J. Kim, Nat. Chem. 3, 205 (2011)
D.Y. Kondakov, T.D. Pawlik, T.K. Hatwar, J.P. Spindler, J. Appl. Phys. 106, 124510 (2009)
A. Endo, M. Ogasawara, A. Takahashi, D. Yokoyama, Y. Kato, C. Adachi, Adv. Mater. 21, 4802 (2009)
C.A. Parker, Photoluminescence of Solutions (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1968)
M.N. Berberan-Santos, J.M.M. Garcia, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118, 9391 (1996)
M. Furukawa and S. Igarashi, Presented at the 81st Spring Mtg. of the Chem. Soc. Jpn. No. 2, F7–30 (2002).
B. Valeur (ed.), Molecular Fluorescence: Principles and Applications, 1st edn. (Wiley-VCH, Wheinheim, 2002)
H. Uoyama, K. Goushi, K. Shizu, H. Nomura, C. Adachi, Nature 492, 234 (2012)
S.Y. Lee, T. Yasuda, H. Nomura, C. Adachi, Appl. Phys. Lett. 101, 093306 (2012)
T. Nakagawa, S.-Y. Ku, K.-T. Wong, C. Adachi, Chem. Commun. 48, 9580 (2012)
G. Mehes, H. Nomura, Q. Zhang, T. Nakagawa, C. Adachi, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51, 11311 (2012)
H. Tanaka, K. Shizu, H. Miyazaki, C. Adachi, Chem. Commun. 48, 11392 (2012)
K. Goushi, K. Yoshida, K. Sato, C. Adachi, Nat Photonics 6, 253 (2012)
M. Suzuki, S. Tokito, F. Sato, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 103507 (2005)
T.C. Rosenow, K. Walzer, K. Leo, J. Appl. Phys. 103, 043105 (2008)
P.S. Vincett, E.M. Voigt, K.E. Rieckhoff, J. Chem. Phys. 55, 4131 (1971)
R. Englman, J. Jortner, Mol. Phys. 18, 145 (1970)
M.A. Baldo, D.F. O’Brien, M.E. Thompson, S.R. Forrest, Phys. Rev. B 60, 14422 (1999)
C. Adachi, M.A. Baldo, M.E. Thompson, S.R. Forrest, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 5048 (2001)
K.T. Ly, R.W.C. Cheng, H.W. Lin, Y.J. Shiau, S.H. Liu, P.T. Chou, C.S. Tsao, Y.C. Huang, Y. Chi, Nat. Photonics. 11, 63 (2017)
X. Li, J. Zhang, Z. Zhao, L. Wang, H. Yang, Q. Chang, N. Jiang, Z. Liu, Z. Bian, W. Liu, Z. Lu, C. Huang, Adv. Mater. 30, 1705005 (2018)
S. Hirata, Y. Sakai, K. Masui, H. Tanaka, S.Y. Lee, H. Nomura, N. Nakamura, M. Yasumatsu, H. Nakanotani, Q. Zhang, K. Shizu, H. Miyazaki, C. Adachi, Nat. Mater. 14, 330 (2015)
Y.L. Zhang, Q. Ran, Q. Wang, Y. Liu, C. Hänisch, S. Reineke, J. Fan, L.S. Liao, Adv. Mater. 31, 1902368 (2019)
R. Nagata, H. Nakanotani, C. Adachi, Adv. Mater. 29, 1604265 (2017)
C.E. Swenberg, W.T. Stacy, Chem. Phys. Lett. 2, 327 (1968)
D.N. Congreve, J. Lee, N.J. Thompson, E. Hontz, S.R. Yost, P.D. Reusswig, M.E. Bahlke, S. Reineke, T.V. Voorhis, M.A. Baldo, Science 340, 331 (2013)
R. Nagata, H. Nakanotani, W.J. Potscavage Jr., C. Adachi, Adv. Mater. 30, 1801484 (2018)
G.B. Piland, J.J. Burdett, D. Kurunthu, C.J. Bardeen, J. Phys. Chem. C 117, 1224 (2013)
W.P. Gillin, R.J. Curry, Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 798 (1999)
Y.S. Wu, T.H. Liu, H.H. Chen, C.H. Chen, Thin Solid Films 496, 626 (2006)
K.R. Graham, Y. Yang, J.R. Sommer, A.H. Shelton, K.S. Schanze, J. Xue, J.R. Reynolds, Chem. Mater. 23, 5305 (2011)
S. Wang, X. Yan, Z. Cheng, H. Zhang, Y. Liu, Y. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 127, 13260 (2015)
C. Li, R. Duan, B. Liang, G. Han, S. Wang, K. Ye, Y. Liu, Y. Yi, Y. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 56, 11525 (2017)
D.G. Congrave, B.H. Drummond, P.J. Conaghan, H. Francis, S.T.E. Jones, C.P. Grey, N.C. Greenham, D. Credgington, H. Bronstein, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141, 18390 (2019)
J. Xue, Q. Liang, R. Wang, J. Hou, W. Li, Q. Peng, Z. Shuai, J. Qiao, Adv. Mater. 31, 1808242 (2019)
H. Noda, H. Nakanotani, C. Adachi, Sci. Adv. 4, eaao6910 (2018)
U. Balijapalli, R. Nagata, N. Yamada, H. Nakanotani, M. Tanaka, A. D’Aléo, V. Placide, M. Mamada, Y. Tsuchiya, C. Adachi, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl.. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202016089
H. Nakanotani, T. Higuchi, T. Furukawa, K. Masui, K. Morimoto, M. Numata, H. Tanaka, Y. Sagara, T. Yasuda, C. Adachi, Nat. Commun. 5, 4016 (2014)
H. Noda, X.K. Chen, H. Nakanotani, T. Hosokai, M. Miyajima, N. Notsuka, Y. Kashima, J.L. Brédas, C. Adachi, Nat. Mater. 18, 1084 (2019)
G. Qian, B. Dai, M. Luo, D. Yu, J. Zhan, Z. Zhang, D. Ma, Z.Y. Wang, Chem. Mater. 20, 6208 (2008)
X. Wang, H. Li, Z. Su, F. Fang, G. Zhang, J. Wang, B. Chu, X. Fang, Z. Wei, B. Li, W. Li, Org. Electron. 15, 2367 (2014)
Acknowledgment
The authors deeply acknowledged Dr. Saeyoun Lee, Dr. Tetsuya Nakagawa, Dr. Katsuyuki Shizu, Dr. Takuma Yasuda, and Dr. William Potscavage for their assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. A part of the description was reproduced from Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 53, 6, 060101, (2014).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Japan KK
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nagata, R., Goushi, K., Nakanotani, H., Adachi, C. (2024). Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs): Materials, Photophysics, and Device Physics. In: Ogawa, S. (eds) Organic Electronics Materials and Devices. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56936-7_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56936-7_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Tokyo
Print ISBN: 978-4-431-56935-0
Online ISBN: 978-4-431-56936-7
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)