Skip to main content

Protozoans Attacking Humans

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Human Parasites
  • 180 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter defines the characteristics of protozoan parasites including important species of the flagellates, amoebae, trypanosomes, Leishmania species and Coccidia (including species of the genera Isospora, Cyclospora, Cryptosporidium, Sarcocystis, Toxoplasma, Plasmodium, Babesia, Balantidium, Pneumocystis, Blastocystis, Enterocytozoon, Septata, Encephalitozoon and Nosema). Each species description contains the single topics: name, geographic distribution, biology/morphology, symptoms of disease, diagnosis, pathway of infection, prophylaxis, incubation period, prepatent period, patency, chemotherapy and further reading.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Recommendations according to the Rothe et al. (2023).

    Caution: Before any treatment check the recent “state of the art”, since recommended dosages/products may have changed.

Further Reading

  • Abdo SM, Ghallab MMI, Elhawary NM, Elhadad H (2022) Pentatrichomonas hominis and other intestinal parasites in school-aged children: coproscopic survey. J Parasit Dis 46(3):896–900

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed MA, Cox-Singh J (2015) Plasmodium knowlesi—an emerging pathogen. ISBT Sci Ser 10:134–140

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed A, Ijaz M, Ayyub RM, Ghaffar A, Ghauri HN, Aziz MU, Ali S, Altaf M, Awais M, Naveed M, Nawab Y, Javed MU (2020) Balantidium coli in domestic animals: An emerging protozoan pathogen of zoonotic significance. Acta Trop 203:105298

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ait Kbaich M, Mhaidi I, Daoui O, Ait Maatallah I, Riyad M, Akarid K, Lemrani M (2020) Population structure of Leishmania major in southeastern Morocco. Acta Trop 210:105587

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alam MZ et al (2014) Genetic diversity of Leishmania donovani/infantum complex in China. Infect Genet Evol 22:112–119

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allain T, Buret AG (2020) Pathogenesis and post-infectious complications in giardiasis. Adv Parasitol 107:173–199

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Almeria S, Cinar HN, Dubey JP (2019) Cyclospora cayetanensis and cyclosporiasis: An update. Microorganisms 7(9):317

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Angrisano F, Robinson LJ (2022) Plasmodium vivax—how hidden reservoirs hinder global malaria elimination. Parasitol Int 87:102526

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ashley EA, Poespoprodjo JR (2020) Treatment and prevention of malaria in children. Lancet Child Adolesc Health 4(10):775–789

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Badri M, Olfatifar M, Abdoli A, Houshmand E, Zarabadipour M, Abadi PA, Johkool MG, Ghorbani A, Eslahi AV (2021) Current global status and the epidemiology of Entamoeba gingivalis in humans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Parasitol 66(4):1102–1113

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bao X, Wiehe R, Dommisch H, Schaefer AS (2020) Entamoeba gingivalis causes oral inflammation and tissue destruction. J Dent Res 99(5):561–567

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barber BE, Grigg MJ, Cooper DJ, van Schalkwyk DA, William T, Rajahram GS, Anstey NM (2021) Clinical management of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria. Adv Parasitol 113:45–76

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bartelt LA, Sartor RB (2015) Advances in understanding Giardia: determinants and mechanisms of chronic sequelae. F1000Prime Rep 7:62. https://doi.org/10.12703/P7-62

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bateman M, Oladele R, Kolls JK (2020) Diagnosing Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: A review of current methods and novel approaches. Med Mycol 58(8):1015–1028

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Batista L, Pérez Jove J, Rosinach M, Gonzalo V, Sainz E, Loras C, Forné M, Esteve M, Fernández-Bañares F (2017) Low efficacy of metronidazole in the eradication of Blastocystis hominis in symptomatic patients: Case series and systematic literature review. Gastroenterol Hepatol 40(6):381–387

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernhard S, Kaiser M, Burri C, Mäser P (2022) Fexinidazole for human African trypanosomiasis, the fruit of a successful public-private partnership. Diseases 10(4):90

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bhosale NK, Parija SC (2021) Balamuthia mandrillaris: An opportunistic, free-living ameba—an updated review. Trop Parasitol 11(2):78–88

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bilbe G (2015) Overcoming neglect of kinetoplastid diseases. Science 348:974–976

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blader IJ et al (2015) Lytic cycle of Toxoplasma gondii 15 years later. Annu Rev Microbiol 69:463–485

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bohne W et al (2011) The parasitophorous vacuole of Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Int J Med Microbiol 301:395–399

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boité MC, Späth GF, Bussotti G, Porrozzi R, Morgado FN, Llewellyn M, Schwabl P, Cupolillo E (2019) Trans-Atlantic spill over: Deconstructing the ecological adaptation of Leishmania infantum in the Americas. Genes (Basel) 11(1):4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonilla LC (2010) Epidemiology of Cyclospora cayetanensis: a review focusing endemic area. Acta Trop 135:181–193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonner M et al (2014) Detection of the amoeba Entamoeba gingivalis in periodontal pockets. Parasite 21:30–35

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bornay-Llinares FJ, da Silva AJ, Moura H, Schwartz DA, Visvesvara GS, Pieniazek NJ, Cruz-López A, Hernández-Jaúregui P, Guerrero J, Enriquez FJ (1998) Immunologic, microscopic, and molecular evidence of Encephalitozoon intestinalis (Septata intestinalis) infection in mammals other than humans. J Infect Dis 178(3):820–826

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brasseur P, Gorenflot A (1992) Human babesiosis in Europe. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 87(Supp 3):131–132

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brugerolle G (1976) Contribution à l’etude cytologique des protozoaires zooflagellés. Thése 227. Université de Clermont-Ferrand, France

    Google Scholar 

  • Brugerolle G (2000) The symbiotic fauna of the African termite: genera Spironympha, Trichomonoides and Retortamonas. Parasitol Res 98:257–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brun R et al (2010) African trypanosomiasis. Lancet 375:148–159

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruneel F (2019) Human cerebral malaria: 2019 mini review. Rev Neurol (Paris) 175(7–8):445–450

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burri C (2010) Chemotherapy against African trypanosomiasis: is there a road of success. Parasitology 137:1984–1987

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cantacessi C et al (2015) The past, present and future of Leishmania genomics and transcriptomics. Trends Parasitol 31:100–108

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Capewell P, Krumrie S, Katzer F, Alexander CL, Weir W (2021) Molecular epidemiology of Giardia infections in the genomic era. Trends Parasitol 37(2):142–153

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carmona-Peña SP, Contreras-Garduño J, Castro DP, Manjarrez J, Vázquez-Chagoyán JC (2021) The innate immune response of triatomines against Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma rangeli with an unresolved question: Do triatomines have immune memory? Acta Trop 224:106108

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cembranelli SBS et al (2013) First evidence of genetic intraspecific variability and occurrence of Entamoeba gingivalis in HIV (+)/AIDS. PLoS One 8(2):e82864

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Charyyeva A, Çetinkaya Ü, Özkan B, Şahin S, Yaprak N, Şahin I, Yurchenko V, Kostygov AY (2021) Genetic diversity of Leishmania tropica: unexpectedly complex distribution pattern. Acta Trop 218:105888

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark CG et al (2014) Transmission of Dientamoeba fragilis: pinworm or cyst? Trends Parasitol 30:136–140

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conesa JJ, Sevilla E, Terrón MC, González LM, Gray J, Pérez-Berná AJ, Carrascosa JL, Pereiro E, Chichón FJ, Luque D, Montero E (2020) Four-dimensional characterization of the Babesia divergens asexual life cycle, from the trophozoite to the multiparasite stage. mSphere 5(5):e00928-20

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Conrad MD et al (2013) Getting Trichy: tools and approaches to interrogating Trichomonas vaginalis in a post-genome world. Trends Parasitol 29:17–29

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cope JR, Landa J, Nethercut H, Collier SA, Glaser C, Moser M, Puttagunta R, Yoder JS, Ali IK, Roy SL (2019) The epidemiology and clinical features of Balamuthia mandrillaris disease in the United States, 1974-2016. Clin Infect Dis 68(11):1815–1822

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornillot E et al (2013) Whole genome mapping and reorganization of the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of Babesia microti isolates. PLoS One 8(9):e72657

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Coura JR (2015) The main sceneries of Chagas disease transmission. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 11:277–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox FEG et al (2005) Microbiology and microbial infections, vol 5, Parasitology. Hodder, Arnold, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Crotti D et al (2007) Dientamoeba fragilis in swine population. Vet Parasitol 145:349–351

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cuenca PR, Key S, Jumail A, Surendra H, Ferguson HM, Drakeley CJ, Fornace K (2021) Epidemiology of the zoonotic malaria Plasmodium knowlesi in changing landscapes. Adv Parasitol 113:225–286

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dalboni LC, Alvares Saraiva AM, Konno FTC, Perez EC, Codeceira JF, Spadacci-Morena DD, Lallo MA (2021) Encephalitozoon cuniculi takes advantage of efferocytosis to evade the immune response. PLoS One 16(3):e0247658

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dario MA, Pavan MG, Rodrigues MS, Lisboa CV, Kluyber D, Desbiez ALJ, Herrera HM, Roque ALR, Lima L, Teixeira MMG, Jansen AM (2021) Trypanosoma rangeli genetic, mammalian hosts, and geographical diversity from five Brazilian biomes. Pathogens 10(6):736

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Das K, Ganguly S (2014) Evolutionary genomics and population structure of Entamoeba histolytica. Comput Struct Biotechnol 12:26–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dayananda KK, Achur RN, Gowda DC (2018) Epidemiology, drug resistance, and pathophysiology of Plasmodium vivax malaria. J Vector Borne Dis 55(1):1–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Jonckheere JF (2014) What do we know about the genus Naegleria? Exp Parasitol 145:52–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Koning-Ward TF, Dixon MW, Tilley L, Gilson PR (2016) Plasmodium species: master renovators of their host cells. Nat Rev Microbiol 14(8):494–507

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeSilva MB et al (2015) Communitywide cryptosporidiosis outbreak associated with a surface water supplied municipal system. Epidemiol Infect 144:274–284

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deutsche Gesellschaft für Tropenmedizin (2021) Leitlinie: Diagnostik und Therapie der Malaria. https://www.awmf.org/uploads/tx_szleitlinien/042-001l_S1_Diagnostik-Therapie-Malaria_2021-08.pdf

  • Dixon BR (2021) Giardia duodenalis in humans and animals—transmission and disease. Res Vet Sci 135:283–289

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dos Santos GT et al (2014) Differential diagnosis of Entamoeba species in clinical stool samples using SYBR green real-time PCR. Sci World J. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/645084

  • Doultree JC et al (1995) In vitro growth of the microsporidian Septata intestinalis from an AIDS patient with disseminated illness. J Clin Microbiol 33:463–470

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dubey JP, Almeria S (2019) Cystoisospora belli infections in humans: the past 100 years. Parasitology 146(12):1490–1527

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elsheika HM (2009) Has Sarcocystis neurona cospeciated with its intermediate host. Vet Parasitol 163:307–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Eroglu P et al (2015) Clinical manifestations and genetic variations of Leishmania infantum and L. tropica in Southern Turkey. Exp Parasitol 154:67–74

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eslahi AV, Olfatifar M, Abdoli A, Houshmand E, Johkool MG, Zarabadipour M, Abadi PA, Ghorbani A, Mirzadeh M, Badri M (2021) The neglected role of Trichomonas tenax in oral diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Parasitol 66(3):715–732

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fadhil Ali Malaa S, Abd Ali Abd Aun Jwad B, Khalis Al-Masoudi H (2022) Assessment of Entamoeba gingivalis and Trichomonas tenax in patients with chronic diseases and its correlation with some risk factors. Arch Razi Inst 77(1):87–93

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fayer R et al (2015) Human infections with Sarcocystis species. CMR 28:295–315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Arévalo A, El Baidouri F, Ravel C, Ballart C, Abras A, Lachaud L, Tebar S, Lami P, Pratlong F, Gállego M, Muñoz C (2020) The Leishmania donovani species complex: A new insight into taxonomy. Int J Parasitol 50(13):1079–1088

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franco JR, Cecchi G, Priotto G, Paone M, Kadima Ebeja A, Simarro PP, Diarra A, Sankara D, Zhao W, Dagne DA (2022) Human African trypanosomiasis cases diagnosed in non-endemic countries (2011-2020). PLoS Negl Trop Dis 16(11):e0010885

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Frenkel JK (1976) Pneumocystis jiroveci, n. sp. from man: morphology, physiology, and immunology in relation to pathology. Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 43:13–30

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Führer HP, Noedo H (2014) Recent advances in detection of Plasmodium ovale. JCM 52:387–391

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furuya K (2009) Spore forming microsporidian Encephalitozoon: current understanding of infection. Jpn J Infect Dis 62:413–422

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galán-Vásquez E, Gómez-García MDC, Pérez-Rueda E (2022) A landscape of gene regulation in the parasitic amoebozoa Entamoeba spp. PLoS One 17(8):e0271640

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia ES et al (2012) Parasite-mediated interactions within the insect vector: Trypanosoma rangeli strategies. Parasit Vectors 5:105–112

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • García-Huertas P, Cardona-Castro N (2021) Advances in the treatment of Chagas disease: Promising new drugs, plants and targets. Biomed Pharmacother 142:112020

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrido-Cardenas JA, González-Cerón L, Manzano-Agugliaro F, Mesa-Valle C (2019) Plasmodium genomics: an approach for learning about and ending human malaria. Parasitol Res 118(1):1–27

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gazzonis AL, Gjerde B, Villa L, Minazzi S, Zanzani SA, Riccaboni P, Sironi G, Manfredi MT (2019) Prevalence and molecular characterisation of Sarcocystis miescheriana and Sarcocystis suihominis in wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Italy. Parasitol Res 118(4):1271–1287

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gjerde B (2015) The resurrection of a species: Sarcocystis bovifelis. Parasitol Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00436-015-4785-4

  • Glans H, Lind Karlberg M, Advani R, Bradley M, Alm E, Andersson B, Downing T (2021) High genome plasticity and frequent genetic exchange in Leishmania tropica isolates from Afghanistan, Iran and Syria. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15(12):e0010110

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Glover L et al (2013) Antigenetic variation in African trypanosomes. Cell Microbiol 15:1984–1993

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goto H et al (2010) Current diagnosis and treatment of cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 8:419–433

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grace E et al (2015) Naegleria fowleri: pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment options. AAC 59:6677–6687

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grace CA, Forrester S, Silva VC, Carvalho KSS, Kilford H, Chew YP, James S, Costa DL, Mottram JC, Costa CCHN, Jeffares DC (2021) Candidates for balancing selection in Leishmania donovani complex parasites. Genome Biol Evol 13(12):evab265

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Grande R, Antinori S, Meroni L, Menegon M, Severini C (2019) A case of Plasmodium malariae recurrence: recrudescence or reinfection? Malar J 18(1):169

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Groger M, Fischer HS, Veletzky L, Lalremruata A, Ramharter M (2017) A systematic review of the clinical presentation, treatment and relapse characteristics of human Plasmodium ovale malaria. Malar J 16(1):112

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Grüntzig J, Mehlhorn H (2010) Expeditions into the empire of plague. Düsseldorf University Press, Düsseldorf

    Google Scholar 

  • Guimares LO et al (2015) Merozoite surface protein-1 genetic diversity in Plasmodium malariae and P. brasilianum. BMC Infect Dis 15:529

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo M et al (2015) Prevalence and risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in meat animals and meat products destined for human consumption. J Food Prot 78:457–476

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hakimi MA, Bougdour A (2015) Toxoplasma’s way of manipulating host transcriptome via secreted effectors. Curr Opin Microbiol 26:24–31

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haldar K, Bhattacharjee S, Safeukui I (2018) Drug resistance in Plasmodium. Nat Rev Microbiol 16(3):156–170

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harris VC et al (2015) Human extraintestinal sarcocystosis. Curr Infect Dis Rep. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11908-015-0495-4

  • Hassan EM, Örmeci B, DeRosa MC, Dixon BR, Sattar SA, Iqbal A (2021) A review of Cryptosporidium spp. and their detection in water. Water Sci Technol 83(1):1–25

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawadak J, Dongang Nana RR, Singh V (2021) Epidemiological, physiological and diagnostic comparison of Plasmodium ovale curtisi and Plasmodium ovale wallikeri. Diagnostics (Basel) 11(10):1900

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henry NB, Sermé SS, Siciliano G, Sombié S, Diarra A, Sagnon N, Traoré AS, Sirima SB, Soulama I, Alano P (2019) Biology of Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte sex ratio and implications in malaria parasite transmission. Malar J 18(1):70

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Heyworth MF (2014) Immunological aspects of Giardia infections. Parasite. https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2014056

  • Hirt RP, Sherrard J (2015) Trichomonas vaginalis origins, molecular pathology and clinical considerations. Curr Opin Infect Dis 28:72–79

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ho J, Carey E, Carey DE, Krause PJ (2021) Recurrence of human babesiosis caused by reinfection. Emerg Infect Dis 27(10):2658–2661

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann SL et al (2015) The march towards malaria vaccine. Am J Prev Med 49:S319–S333

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huston CD et al (2015) A proposed target product profile and development cascade for new cryptosporidiosis treatment. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9(10):e0003987

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ihara F, Nishikawa Y (2021) Toxoplasma gondii manipulates host cell signaling pathways via its secreted effector molecules. Parasitol Int 83:102368

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ivens SC et al (2005) The genome of the kinetoplastid parasite Leishmania major. Science 309:436–442

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jahangeer M, Mahmood Z, Munir N, Waraich UE, Tahir IM, Akram M, Ali Shah SM, Zulfqar A, Zainab R (2020) Naegleria fowleri: Sources of infection, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management; a review. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 47(2):199–212

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jasni N, Saidin S, Kin WW, Arifin N, Othman N (2022) Entamoeba histolytica: Membrane and non-membrane protein structure, function, immune response interaction, and vaccine development. Membranes (Basel) 12(11):1079

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang C et al (2015) Acanthamoeba keratitis: clinical characteristics and management. Ocul Surf 13:164–174

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joste V, Bailly J, Hubert V, Pauc C, Gendrot M, Guillochon E, Madamet M, Thellier M, Kendjo E, Argy N, Pradines B, Houzé S, French National Reference Center for Imported Malaria Study Group1 (2021) Plasmodium ovale wallikeri and P. ovale curtisi infections and diagnostic approaches to imported malaria, France, 2013-2018. Emerg Infect Dis 27(2):372–384

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kasozi KI, MacLeod ET, Welburn SC (2022) Systematic review and meta-analysis on human African trypanocide resistance. Pathogens 11(10):1100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Keating J et al (2015) Human African trypanosomiasis: prevention, treatment and control costs: a systematic review. Acta Trop 150:4–13

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim YA et al (2010) PCR detection and molecular characterization of Pentatrichomonas hominis. Korean J Parasitol 48:9–13

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kissinger P (2015) Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. BMC Infect Dis 15:307

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kök M, Çekin Y, Çekin AH, Uyar S, Harmandar F, Şahintürk Y (2019) The role of Blastocystis hominis in the activation of ulcerative colitis. Turk J Gastroenterol 30(1):40–46

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koliske M et al (2008) Molecular phylogeny of diplomonads and enteromonads. BMC Evol Biol 8:205

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotepui M, Kotepui KU, Milanez GD, Masangkay FR (2020) Reduction in total leukocytes in malaria patients compared to febrile controls: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 15(6):e0233913

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Krause PJ (2019) Human babesiosis. Int J Parasitol 49(2):165–174

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kucerova Z, Moura H, Visvesvara GS, Leitch GJ (2004) Differences between Brachiola (Nosema) algerae isolates of human and insect origin when tested using an in vitro spore germination assay and a cultured cell infection assay. J Eukaryot Microbiol 51(3):339–343

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kugasia IR et al (2014) Recrudescence of Plasmodium malariae after quinine. Case Rep Med 2014:590265

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lai A et al (2015) Cryptosporidiosis: a disease of tropical and remote areas in Australia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9(9):e0004078

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lainson R, Shaw JJ (2005) New world leishmaniasis. In: Cox FEG et al (eds) Parasitology. Hodder Arnold, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Govic Y et al (2015) Assessment of microscopic and molecular tools for the diagnosis and follow-up of cryptosporidiosis in patients at risk. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-015-2519-2

  • Leitsch D (2021) Recent advances in the molecular biology of the protist parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. Fac Rev 10:26

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lendner M et al (2015) A novel CDPK1 inhibitor—a potential treatment of cryptosporidiosis of calves. Parasitol Res 114:335–336

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li WC et al (2015) Pentatrichomonas hominis: prevalence and molecular characterization in humans, dogs, and monkeys in Northern China. Parasitol Res 115(2):569–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-015-4773-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li W, Feng Y, Santin M (2019) Host specificity of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and public health implications. Trends Parasitol 35(6):436–451

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Wang R, Chen Y, Xiao L, Zhang L (2020a) Cyclospora cayetanensis infection in humans: biological characteristics, clinical features, epidemiology, detection method and treatment. Parasitology 147(2):160–170

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li W, Feng Y, Xiao L (2020b) Diagnosis and molecular typing of Enterocytozoon bieneusi: the significant role of domestic animals in transmission of human microsporidiosis. Res Vet Sci 133:251–261

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lima TS, Lodoen MB (2019) Mechanisms of human innate immune evasion by Toxoplasma gondii. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 9:103

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lin W et al (2015) First detection and genotyping of Enterocytozoon bieneusi. Parasit Vectors 8:526–530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindemann C (1863) Psorospermes chez l’homme. Bull Soc Imp Nat Moscow 36:425–436

    Google Scholar 

  • Lobo CA, Cursino-Santos JR, Singh M, Rodriguez M (2019) Babesia divergens: A drive to survive. Pathogens 8(3):95

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lobo CA, Singh M, Rodriguez M (2020) Human babesiosis: recent advances and future challenges. Curr Opin Hematol 27(6):399–405

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Longley RL et al (2015) Malaria vaccines: identifying Plasmodium falciparum liver stage targets. Front Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.3389/1micb.2015.00960

  • Lorenzo-Morales J et al (2013) Is Balamuthia mandrillaris a public health concern worldwide? Trends Parasitol 29:483–496

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenzo-Morales J et al (2015) An update on Acanthamoeba keratitis: diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment. Parasite 22:10–17. https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2015010

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Löscher T, Burchard GD (2010) Tropical medicine in clinic and praxis, 4th edn. Thieme, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Luo Z et al (2015) The biology of Plasmodium vivax explored through genomics. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1342:53–62

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Maier P, Betancor PK, Reinhard T (2022) Contact-lens-associated keratitis—an often underestimated risk. Dtsch Arztebl Int 119(40):669–674

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Malik LH et al (2015) The epidemiology, clinical manifestations and management of Chagas heart disease. Clin Cardiol 38:565–569

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mann JR et al (2009) Treatment of trichomoniasis in pregnancy and preterm birth: an observational study. J Womens Health 18:493–497

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mansfield LS, Gajadhar AA (2004) Cyclospora cayetanensis: a food- and waterborne coccidian parasite. Vet Parasitol 126:73–90

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mansueto P et al (2014) Leishmaniasis in travellers. Travel Med Infect Dis 12:563–581

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marie J, Petri WA Jr (2014) Regulation of virulence of E. histolytica. Annu Rev Microbiol 68:493–520

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Marques-Silva M, Lisboa C, Gomes N, Rodrigues AG (2021) Trichomonas vaginalis and growing concern over drug resistance: a systematic review. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 35(10):2007–2021

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin A et al (2008) Increasing importance of Balamuthia mandrillaris. Clin Microbiol Rev 21:435–448

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin-Garcia DF, Sallam M, Garcia G, Santi-Rocca J (2022) Parasites in periodontal health and disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Adv Exp Med Biol 1373:95–111

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masha SC, Cools P, Sanders EJ, Vaneechoutte M, Crucitti T (2019) Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV infection acquisition: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sex Transm Infect 95(1):36–42

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matthew MA, Christie J, Yang N, Yao C (2022) A Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) assay specific to Trichomonas tenax is suitable for use at point-of-care. Microorganisms 10(3):594

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mawia A (1990) Ultrastructure of the cyst wall of Sarcocystis lindemanni with pathological corrections. J Egypt Soc Parasitol 20:319–325

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehlhorn H (ed) (2016) Encyclopedia of parasitology, 4th edn. Springer, Heidelberg

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehlhorn H, Heydorn AO (1978) The Sarcosporidia: life cycle and fine structure. Adv Parasitol 16:43–92

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehlhorn H et al (1995) Pilot study on the efficacy of epiroprim against developmental stages of Toxoplasma gondii and Pneumocystis carinii. Parasitol Res 81:296–301

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehlhorn H, Tan KSV, Yoshikawa H (eds) (2012) Blastocystis: pathogen or passenger, Parasitology research monographs 4. Springer, New York, pp 1–219

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehr AK et al (2015) Prevalence of Trichomonas tenax in periodontal lesions of Down syndrome in Tabriz, Iran. J Clin Diagn Res 9:88–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendez OA, Koshy AA (2017) Toxoplasma gondii: Entry, association, and physiological influence on the central nervous system. PLoS Pathog 13(7):e1006351

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer CG (2021) Tropenmedizin: Infektionskrankheiten, 4th edn. ECOMED Medizin, Landsberg

    Google Scholar 

  • Mielczarek E, Blaszkowska Y (2015) Trichomonas vaginalis: pathogenicity and potential role in human reproductive failure. Infection. https://doi.org/10.1007/s15010-015-0860-0

  • Milner DA Jr (2018) Malaria pathogenesis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 8(1):a025569

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Molina JM et al (1995) Disseminated microsporidiosis due to Septata intestinalis in patients with AIDS: clinical features and response to albendazole therapy. J Infect Dis 171:245–239

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munasinghe VS et al (2013) Cyst formation and faecal-oral transmission of Dientamoeba fragilis. Int J Parasitol 43:879–883

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Musa MA, Nakamura R, Hena A, Varikuti S, Nakhasi HL, Goto Y, Satoskar AR, Hamano S (2019) Lymphocytes influence Leishmania major pathogenesis in a strain-dependent manner. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 13(11):e0007865

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nardy AF et al (2015) Immune evasion strategies of Trypanosoma cruzi. J Immunol Res. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/178947

  • Navaneethan U et al (2012) Isospora belli superinfection in a patient with eosinophilic gastroenteritis—a diagnostic challenge. J Crohn’s Colitis 6:236–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neumayr AL et al (2012) Successful treatment of imported mucosal Leishmania infantum leishmaniasis by miltefosine after severe hypokalemia under meglumine antimonite treatment. J Travel Med 19:124–126

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neveu G, Beri D, Kafsack BF (2020) Metabolic regulation of sexual commitment in Plasmodium falciparum. Curr Opin Microbiol 58:93–98

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nogueda-Torres B, Galaviz-Silva L, Villalvazo-Bejines G, Molina-Garza ZJ, Martínez-Ibarra JA (2022) Impact of home improvements and health education on the transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi Chagas in a rural area of western Mexico. J Vector Ecol 47(2):171–178

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira FMS et al (2015) Entamoeba dispar: could it be pathogenic. Trop Parasitol 5:9–14

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Oriero EC, Amenga-Etego L, Ishengoma DS, Amambua-Ngwa A (2021) Plasmodium malariae, current knowledge and future research opportunities on a neglected malaria parasite species. Crit Rev Microbiol 47(1):44–56

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ortega YRR, Sanchez R (2010) Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis. Clin Microbiol Rev 23:2018–2234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pace D (2014) Leishmaniasis. J Infect 69:510–518

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Painter JE et al (2015) Cryptosporidiosis surveillance—United States, 2011–2012. MMWR Suppl 64(3):1–14

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patino LH, Castillo-Castañeda A, Muñoz M, Muskus C, Rivero-Rodríguez M, Pérez-Doria A, Bejarano EE, Ramírez JD (2021) Revisiting the heterogeneous global genomic population structure of Leishmania infantum. Microb Genom 7(9):000640

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Peacock CS et al (2007) Comparative analysis of three Leishmania species that cause divers human disease. Nat Genet 39:839–847

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pittman KJ, Knoll LJ (2015) Long-term relationships: the complicated interplay between host and the developmental stages of Toxoplasma gondii during acute chronic infections. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 79:387–399

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Plewes K, Leopold SJ, Kingston HWF, Dondorp AM (2019) Malaria: what’s new in the management of malaria? Infect Dis Clin North Am 33(1):39–60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pomajbikova K et al (2013) Novel insights into the genetic density of Balantidium and Balantidium-like cysts forming ciliates. PLoS Negl Dis 7:e2140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ponce-Gordo F, García-Rodríguez JJ (2021) Balantioides coli. Res Vet Sci 135:424–431

    Google Scholar 

  • Popovici Y, Ménard D (2015) Challenges in antimalarial drug treatment for vivax malaria control. Trends Mol Med 21(12):776–788

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prucca CG et al (2011) Regulation of antigenic variation in Giardia lamblia. Annu Rev Microbiol 65:611–630

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ralston KS (2015) Chew on this: amoebic trogocytosis host cell killing by Entamoeba histolytica. Trends Parasitol 31:442–452

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ralston KS et al (2014) Trogocytosis by Entamoeba histolytica contributes to cell killing and tissue invasion. Nature 508:526–542

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ready PD (2014) Epidemiology of visceral leishmaniasis. Clin Epidemiol 6:147–154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ribeiro LC et al (2015) Is Trichomonas tenax a parasite or a commensal? Protist 166:196–210

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richter J et al (2010) What is the evidence for the existence of Plasmodium ovale hypnozoites. Parasitol Res 107:1285–1290

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richter J et al (2011) Mucosal Leishmania infantum. Parasitol Res 109:959–962

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roatt BM et al (2014) Immunotherapy and immunochemotherapy in visceral leishmaniasis promising treatments for this neglected disease. Front Immunol 5(Article 272):1–11

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson G, Elwin K, Chalmers RM (2020) Cryptosporidium diagnostic assays: Molecular detection. Methods Mol Biol 2052:11–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ropolo AS, Touz MC (2010) A lesson in survival by Giardia lamblia. Sci World J 10:2019–2031

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal BM (2021) Zoonotic sarcocystis. Res Vet Sci 136:151–157

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roshidi N, Arifin N (2022) Disease biomarkers of giardiasis. J Parasitol Res 2022:1932518

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rösner D et al (2013) Dientamoeba fragilis in Denmark: epidemiological experience. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 32:1303–1310

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rostamin MN et al (2014) Isospora belli associated recurrent diarrhea in a child with AIDS. J Parasit Dis 38:444–446

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothe C et al (2023) Empfehlungen zur Malariaprophylaxe Flug u Reisemed 30:168–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Roussow I et al (2015) Morphological and molecular descriptors of the developmental cycle of Babesia divergens parasites in human erythrocytes. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003711

  • Rozej-Bielicka W et al (2015) Human babesiosis. Przegl Epidemiol 69:489–494

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubiola S, Civera T, Ferroglio E, Zanet S, Zaccaria T, Brossa S, Cipriani R, Chiesa F (2020) Molecular differentiation of cattle Sarcocystis spp. by multiplex PCR targeting 18S and COI genes following identification of Sarcocystis hominis in human stool samples. Food Waterborne Parasitol 18:e00074

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rudenko G (2011) African trypanosomes: the genome and adaptations for the immune evasion. Essays Biochem 51:47–62

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan U, Caccio SM (2013) Zoonotic potential of Giardia. Int J Parasitol 43:943–956

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saigal K et al (2013) Intestinal microsporidiosis in India: a two year study. Parasitol Int 62:53–56

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Santana Nogueira S, Cardoso Santos E, Oliveira Silva R, Vilela Gonçalves R, Lima GDA, Dias Novaes R (2022) Monotherapy and combination chemotherapy for Chagas disease treatment: a systematic review of clinical efficacy and safety based on randomized controlled trials. Parasitology 149(13):1679–1694

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Santaniello A, Cimmino I, Dipineto L, Agognon AL, Beguinot F, Formisano P, Fioretti A, Menna LF, Oriente F (2021) Zoonotic risk of Encephalitozoon cuniculi in animal-assisted interventions: Laboratory strategies for the diagnosis of infections in humans and animals. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18(17):9333

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Santos ES, Silva DKC, Dos Reis BPZC, Barreto BC, Cardoso CMA, Ribeiro Dos Santos R, Meira CS, Soares MBP (2021) Immunomodulation for the treatment of chronic Chagas disease cardiomyopathy: A new approach to an old enemy. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 11:765879

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sardar SK, Kobayashi S, Das K, Saito-Nakano Y, Dutta S, Nozaki T, Ganguly S (2022) Development of a simple PCR-RFLP technique for detection and differentiation of E. histolytica, E. dispar and E. moshkovskii. Parasitol Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-022-07706-1

  • Savargaoukar D et al (2014) Plasmodium malariae infection—a case of missed infection. J Vector Borne Dis 51:149–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuster F, Ramirez-Avila L (2008) Current world status of Balantidium coli. Clin Microbiol Rev 21:626–638

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shakib P, Kalani H, Tahir Aleem M, Faridnia R, Zebardast Pour M, Moradpour K, Cheraghipour K (2022) New strategies in the treatment of diseases caused by Acanthamoeba based on nanoparticles: a systematic review. Curr Rev Clin Exp Pharmacol. https://doi.org/10.2174/2772432818666221111155119. Online ahead of print

  • Siddiqui R, Khan NA (2020) Current treatment options of Balamuthia mandrillaris: a patent overview. Pharm Pat Anal 9(4):121–123

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silva Barbosa A et al (2015) Isolation and maintenance of Balantidium coli. Vet Parasitol 201:240–245

    Google Scholar 

  • Simarro PP et al (2012) Update on field use of the available drug for the chemotherapy of human African trypanosomiasis. Parasitology 139:842–846

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh B, Daneshvar C (2013) Human infections and detection of Plasmodium knowlesi. CMR 26:165–184

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh OP, Sundar S (2014) Immunotherapy and targeted therapies in treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Front Immunol 5(Article 296):1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinniah B et al (2014) Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections among communities living in different habitats. Trop Biomed 31:190–206

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sistron M et al (2014) Comparative genomics reveal multiple genetic backgrounds in the Trypanosoma brucei complex. Genome Biol Evol 6:2811–2819

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skappack C et al (2014) Invasive amoebiasis: a review of Entamoeba infections highlighted with case reports. Can J Gastroenterol Hepatol 28:355–365

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RP, Hunfeld KP, Krause PJ (2020) Management strategies for human babesiosis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 18(7):625–636

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soares R, Tasca T (2016) Giardiasis: an update review on sensitivity and specificity of methods for laboratorial diagnosis. J Microbiol Methods 129:98–102

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sokulska M, Kicia M, Wesołowska M, Hendrich AB (2015) Pneumocystis jirovecii—from a commensal to pathogen: clinical and diagnostic review. Parasitol Res 114(10):3577–3585

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spielmann T, Gilberger TW (2015) Critical steps in protein export of Plasmodium falciparum blood stages. Trends Parasitol 31:514–520

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sprague V (1974) Nosema connori n. sp., a microsporidian parasite of man. Trans Am Microsc Soc 93:400–402

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stahl LM, Olson JB (2020) Environmental abiotic and biotic factors affecting the distribution and abundance of Naegleria fowleri. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 97(1):fiaa238

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stanaway JD, Roth G (2015) The burden of Chagas disease. Glob Heart 10:139–144

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein J et al (2013) An unusual complication in ulcerative colitis during treatment with azathioprine and infliximab: Isospora belli as “casus belli”. BMI Case Rep. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2013-009837

  • Steinmannn P et al (2015) Contemporary and emerging strategies for eliminating human African trypanosomiasis due to Trypanosoma brucei gambiense. Trop Med Int Health 20:70–718

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stensvold CR et al (2011) Increased sampling reveals novel lineages of Entamoeba. Protist 162:525–541

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutrave G, Maundrell A, Keighley C, Jennings Z, Brammah S, Wang MX, Pamphlett R, Webb CE, Stark D, Englert H, Gottlieb D, Bilmon I, Watts MR (2018) Anncaliia algerae microsporidial myositis, New South Wales, Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 24(8):1528–1531

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tappe D et al (2013) Human and animal invasive muscular sarcocystosis in Malaysia—recent cases, review and hypothesis. Trop Biomed 30:355–366

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ten Hove RJ et al (2008) Real-time polymerase chain reaction for detection of Isospora belli in stool samples. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 61:280–283

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thu AM, Phyo AP, Landier J, Parker DM, Nosten FH (2017) Combating multidrug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria. FEBS J 284(16):2569–2578

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tsang SH, Peisch SF, Rowan B, Markt SC, Gonzalez-Feliciano AG, Sutcliffe S, Platz EA, Mucci LA, Ebot EM (2019) Association between Trichomonas vaginalis and prostate cancer mortality. Int J Cancer 144(10):2377–2380

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vallejo GA et al (2009) Triatominae—Trypanosoma cruzi/rangeli vector interactions. Acta Trop 110:137–147

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Auwera G, Dujardin JC (2015) Species typing in dermal leishmaniasis. CMR 28:265–293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Gestel RS, Kusters JG, Monkelbaan JF (2019) A clinical guideline on Dientamoeba fragilis infections. Parasitology 146(9):1131–1139

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Kalleveen MW, van Gool T, Klarenbeek N, Benninga MA, Savelkoul PHM, de Meij T, Plötz FB (2020) Dientamoeba fragilis in children: a systematic review on diagnostic considerations and efficacy of treatment. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 14(4):231–242

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Velásquez JN et al (2012) First case report of infection caused by Encephalitozoon intestinalis in a domestic cat and a patient with AIDS. Vet Parasitol 190:583–586

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Velásquez JN, Etchart CB, Astudillo OG, Chertcoff AV, Pantano ML, Carnevale S (2022) Cystoisospora belli, liver disease and hypothesis on the life cycle. Parasitol Res 121(1):403–411

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venturelli A, Tagliazucchi L, Lima C, Venuti F, Malpezzi G, Magoulas GE, Santarem N, Calogeropoulou T, Cordeiro-da-Silva A, Costi MP (2022) Current treatments to control African trypanosomiasis and One Health perspective. Microorganisms 10(7):1298

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vieira de Morais CG et al (2015) The dialogue of host-parasite relationship: Leishmania ssp. and Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Biomed Res Int. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/324915

  • Walters HA, Welter BH, Knight EW, Villano MA, Keramati CA, Morris MT, Temesvari LA (2022) Hypothetical proteins play a role in stage conversion, virulence, and the stress response in the Entamoeba species. Exp Parasitol 243:108410

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang G et al (2015) Utilization of a real-time PCR assay for diagnosis of Babesia microti infection in clinical practice. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 6:376–382

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wei HX et al (2015) A systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of anti-Toxoplasma gondii medicines in humans. PLoS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138204

  • Weyant RB, Kabbani D, Doucette K, Lau C, Cervera C (2021) Pneumocystis jirovecii: a review with a focus on prevention and treatment. Expert Opin Pharmacother 22(12):1579–1592

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2014) Human African trypanosomiasis—symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. Geneva. http://www.who.int/trypanosomiasisafrican/diagnosis/en/

  • WHO (2022) Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness). Geneva. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/trypanosomiasis-human-african-(sleeping-sickness)

  • Widmer G, Carmena D, Kváč M, Chalmers RM, Kissinger JC, Xiao L, Sateriale A, Striepen B, Laurent F, Lacroix-Lamandé S, Gargala G, Favennec L (2020a) Update on Cryptosporidium spp.: highlights from the Seventh International Giardia and Cryptosporidium Conference. Parasite 27:14. https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2020011

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Widmer G, Köster PC, Carmena D (2020b) Cryptosporidium hominis infections in non-human animal species: revisiting the concept of host specificity. Int J Parasitol 50(4):253–262

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams DT et al (2008) Severe hypokalemia, paralysis and AIDS-associated Isospora belli diarrhea. J Emerg Med 41:129–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson IW et al (2014) Host parasite interactions in Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba dispar: what have we learned from the genomes. Parasite Immunol 34:90–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wojcik-Fatla A et al (2015) Babesia spp. in questing ticks from Eastern Poland and species diversity. Parasitol Res 114:3111–3116

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wolk DM, Johnson CH, Rice EW, Marshall MM, Grahn KF, Plummer CB, Sterling CR (2000) A spore counting method and cell culture model for chlorine disinfection studies of Encephalitozoon syn. Septata intestinalis. Appl Environ Microbiol 66(4):1266–1273

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wyrosdick HM, Schaefer JJ (2015) Toxoplasma gondii history and diagnostic test development. Anim Health Res Rev. https://doi.org/10.1017/S466252315000183

  • Xiang H et al (2014) New evidence on the relationship between microsporidia and fungi: a genome-wide analysis by DarkHorse software. Can J Microbiol 60:557–568

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yakoob J et al (2012) Microsporidial infections due to Encephalitozoon intestinalis in non-HIV-infected patients with chronic diarrhoea. Epidemiol Infect 140:17773–11779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang Y et al (2015) Widespread evidence of human-pathogenic Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotype D. Parasitol Res 114:4341–4338

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang Y, Hu X, Min L, Dong X, Guan Y (2020) Balamuthia mandrillaris-related primary amoebic encephalitis in China diagnosed by next generation sequencing and a review of the literature. Lab Med 51(2):e20–e26

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshikawa H et al (1987) Freeze fracture studies on Pneumocystis carinii. Parasitol Res 73:132–138

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yu P, Rong J, Zhang Y, Du J (2020) Dysentery caused by Balantidium coli in China. Korean J Parasitol 58(1):47–49

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zanghi G, Vaughan AM (2021) Plasmodium vivax pre-erythrocytic stages and the latent hypnozoite. Parasitol Int 85:102447

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zavala F (2022) RTS,S: the first malaria vaccine. J Clin Invest 132(1):e156588

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Lai BS, Juhas M, Zhang Y (2019) Toxoplasma gondii secretory proteins and their role in invasion and pathogenesis. Microbiol Res 227:126293

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang H, Yu Y, Li J, Gong P, Wang X, Li X, Cheng Y, Yu X, Zhang N, Zhang X (2022) Changes of gut microbiota in colorectal cancer patients with Pentatrichomonas hominis infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 12:961974

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao XY, Ewald SE (2020) The molecular biology and immune control of chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection. J Clin Invest 130(7):3370–3380

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer AJ, Simonsen KA (2022) Babesiosis. In: StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls, Treasure Island, FL, 2022 January

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Mehlhorn, H. (2023). Protozoans Attacking Humans. In: Human Parasites. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41705-4_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics