Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Functional Role of Physical Exercise and Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Depression and Mood Disorders

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Neurobiological and Psychological Aspects of Brain Recovery

Part of the book series: Contemporary Clinical Neuroscience ((CCNE))

Abstract

In adulthood, depression is the most common psychiatric disorder and is projected to become the highest cause of disease burden by 2030. Major depression represents a debilitating condition that significantly impairs the function of the central nervous system and severely degrades the quality of life. Several hypotheses regarding the mechanisms that underlie the pathophysiology of major depression have been investigated. Indeed, major depression has a multifactorial etiology arising from environmental, psychological, genetic, and biological factors. Research over the past decades has clarified that depression is mainly associated with neurotransmitter and neurotrophic factor imbalances, HPA disturbances, deregulated inflammatory pathways, increased oxidative damage, neurogenesis dysfunction, and mitochondrial disturbances. In the recent years, the bulk of the research has concentrated on the study of the neurotransmitters, neurotrophins, neurogenesis, and neuroinflammation as the main factors involved in the pathogenesis of depression. Since recent evidence has suggested that sedentary life and poor diet contribute to the genesis and course of depression, in this chapter, we have considered the effects of physical exercise and nutritional factors crucial for the central nervous system, such as omega-3 fatty acids, on depression and mood disorders.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Aberg MA, Aberg ND, Palmer TD, Alborn AM, Carlsson-Skwirut C, Bang P, et al. IGF-I has a direct proliferative effect in adult hippocampal progenitor cells. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2003;24:23–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aberg ND, Brywe KG, Isgaard J. Aspects of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I related to neuroprotection, regeneration, and functional plasticity in the adult brain. Sci World J. 2006;6:53–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adachi M, Barrot M, Autry AE, Theobald D, Monteggia LM. Selective loss of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the dentate gyrus attenuates antidepressant efficacy. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;63:642–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aihara Y, Minai J, Aoyama A, Shimanouchi S. Depressive symptoms and past lifestyle among Japanese elderly people. Community Ment Health J. 2011;47:186–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aimone JB, Wiles J, Gage FH. Computational influence of adult neurogenesis on memory encoding. Neuron. 2009;61:187–202.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aimone JB, Deng W, Gage FH. Adult neurogenesis: integrating theories and separating functions. Trends Cogn Sci. 2010;7:325–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aimone JB, Deng W, Gage FH. Resolving new memories: a critical look at the dentate gyrus, adult neurogenesis, and pattern separation. Neuron. 2011;70:589–96.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akbaraly TN, Brunner EJ, Ferrie JE, Marmot MG, Kivimaki M, Singh-Manoux A. Dietary pattern and depressive symptoms in middle age. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195:408–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez DD, Giacomini D, Yang SM, Trinchero MF, Temprana SG, Büttner KA, et al. A disynaptic feedback network activated by experience promotes the integration of new granule cells. Science. 2016;354(6311):459–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton KM, Sallis HM, Perry R, Ness AR, Churchill R. Omega-3 fatty acids for depression in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;11:CD004692.

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleton KM, Sallis HM, Perry R, Ness AR, Churchill R. ω-3 Fatty acids for major depressive disorder in adults: an abridged Cochrane review. BMJ Open. 2016;6:e010172.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arango V, Ernsberger P, Marzuk J, Chen S, Tierney H, Stanley M, et al. Autoradiographic demonstration of increased serotonin 5-HT2 and b-adrenergic receptor binding sites in the brain of suicide victims. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990;47:1038–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ariel A, Li PL, Wang W, Tang WX, Fredman G, Hong S, et al. The docosatriene protectin D1 is produced by TH2 skewing and promotes human T cell apoptosis via lipid raft clustering. J Biol Chem. 2005;280:43079–86.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Azevedo Da Silva M, Singh-Manoux A, Brunner EJ, Kaffashian S, Shipley MJ, Kivimäki M, et al. Bidirectional association between physical activity and symptoms of anxiety and depression: the Whitehall II study. Eur J Epidemiol. 2012;27:537–46.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey SP, Davis JM, Ahlborn EN. Neuroendocrine and substrate responses to altered brain 5-HT activity during prolonged exercise to fatigue. J Appl Physiol. 1993;74:3006–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bannenberg GL. Resolvins: current understanding and future potential in the control of inflammation. Curr Opin Drug Discov Devel. 2009;12:644–58.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bao H, Asrican B, Li W, Gu B, Wen Z, Lim SA. Long-range GABAergic inputs regulate neural stem cell quiescence and control adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Cell Stem Cell. 2017;21(5):604–617.e5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bazan NG. Neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1): a DHA-derived mediator that protects brain and retina against cell injury-induced oxidative stress. Brain Pathol. 2005;15:159–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beautrais AL, Joyce PR, Mulder RT, Fergusson DM, Deavoll BJ, Nightingale SK. Prevalence and comorbidity of mental disorders in persons making serious suicide attempts: a case-control study. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:1009–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belarbi K, Arellano C, Ferguson R, Jopson T, Rosi S. Chronic neuroinflammation impacts the recruitment of adult-born neurons into behaviorally relevant hippocampal networks. Brain Behav Immun. 2012;26:18–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berk M, Jacka F. Preventive strategies in depression: gathering evidence for risk factors and potential interventions. Br J Psychiatry. 2012;201:339–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berk M, Sarris J, Coulson CE, Jacka FN. Lifestyle management of unipolar depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2013;443:38–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhatia HS, Agrawal R, Sharma S, Huo YX, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency during brain maturation reduces neuronal and behavioral plasticity in adulthood. PLoS One. 2011;6:e28451.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biegon A, Israeli M. Regionally selective increased in b-adrenergic receptor density in the brains of suicide victims. Brain Res. 1988;442:199–203.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bigornia SJ, Harris WS, Falcón LM, Ordovás JM, Lai CQ, Tucker KL. The omega-3 index is inversely associated with depressive symptoms among individuals with elevated oxidative stress biomarkers. J Nutr. 2016;146:758–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Björkholm C, Monteggia LM. BDNF—a key transducer of antidepressant effects. Neuropharmacology. 2016;102:72–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bjørnebekk A, Mathé AA, Brené S. The antidepressant effect of running is associated with increased hippocampal cell proliferation. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2005;8:357–68.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bjornebekk A, Mathe AA, Brene S. Isolated flinders sensitive line rats have decreased dopamine D2 receptor mRNA. Neuroreport. 2007;18:1039–43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bliss TV, Collingridge GL. A synaptic model of memory: long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. Nature. 1993;361:31–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blondeau N, Nguemeni C, Debruyne DN, Piens M, Wu X, Pan H, et al. Subchronic alpha-linolenic acid treatment enhances brain plasticity and exerts an antidepressant effect: a versatile potential therapy for stroke. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009;34:2548–59.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Doraiswamy PM, Watkins L, Hoffman BM, Barbour KA, et al. Exercise and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Psychosom Med. 2007;69:587–96.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bourke M, Patten RK, Dash S, Pascoe M, Craike M, Firth J, et al. The effect of interventions that target multiple modifiable health behaviors on symptoms of anxiety and depression in young people: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Adolesc Health. 2022;70:208–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman GL, Silbert LC, Howieson D, Dodge HH, Traber MG, Frei B, et al. Nutrient biomarker patterns, cognitive function, and MRI measures of brain aging. Neurology. 2012;78:241–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman GL, Dodge HH, Mattek N, Barbey AK, Silbert LC, Shinto L, et al. Plasma omega-3 PUFA and white matter mediated executive decline in older adults. Front Aging Neurosci. 2013;5:92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bozzatello P, Rocca P, Mantelli E, Bellino S. Polyunsaturated fatty acids: what is their role in treatment of psychiatric disorders? Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20:5257.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brezun JM, Daszuta A. Serotonergic reinnervation reverses lesion-induced decreases in PSA-NCAM labeling and proliferation of hippocampal cells in adult rats. Hippocampus. 2000;10:37–46.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brites D, Fernandes A. Neuroinflammation and depression: microglia activation, extracellular microvesicles and microRNA dysregulation. Front Cell Neurosci. 2015;9:476.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cao D, Kevala K, Kim J, Moon HS, Jun SB, Lovinger D, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid promotes hippocampal neuronal development and synaptic function. J Neurochem. 2009;111:510–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carabelli B, Delattre AM, Waltrick APF, Araújo G, Suchecki D, Machado RB, et al. Fish-oil supplementation decreases Indoleamine-2,3-Dioxygenase expression and increases hippocampal serotonin levels in the LPS depression model. Behav Brain Res. 2020;390:112675.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlezon WAJ, Mague SD, Parow AM, Stoll AL, Cohen BM, Renshaw PF. Antidepressant-like effects of uridine and omega-3 fatty acids are potentiated by combined treatment in rats. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:343–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter T, Callaghan P, Khalil E, Morres I. The effectiveness of a preferred intensity exercise programme on the mental health outcomes of young people with depression: a sequential mixed methods evaluation. BMC Public Health. 2012;13:187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chalon S. Omega-3 fatty acids and monoamine neurotransmission. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2006;75:259–69.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaouloff F, Elghozi JL, Guezennec Y, Laude D. Effects of conditioned running on plasma, liver and brain tryptophan and on brain 5-hydroxytryptamine metabolism of the rat. Br J Pharmacol. 1985;86:33–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Price LH, Heninger GR. Desipramine-yohimbine combination treatment of refractory depression. Implications for the beta-adrenergic receptor hypothesis of antidepressant action. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986;43:1155–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chatzi L, Melaki V, Sarri K, Apostolaki I, Roumeliotaki T, Georgiou V, et al. Dietary patterns during pregnancy and therisk of postpartum depression: the mother-child‘Rhea’cohort in Crete, Greece. Public Health Nutr. 2011;14:1663–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi KW, Chen CY, Stein MB, Klimentidis YC, Wang MJ, Koenen KC, Major Depressive Disorder Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, et al. Assessment of bidirectional relationships between physical activity and depression among adults: a 2-Sample mendelian randomization study. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019;76(4):399–408.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chytrova G, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. Exercise contributes to the effects of DHA dietary supplementation by acting on membrane-related synaptic systems. Brain Res. 2010;1341:32–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clelland CD, Choi M, Romberg C, Clemenson GD Jr, Fragniere A, Tyers P, et al. A functional role for adult hippocampal neurogenesis in spatial pattern separation. Science. 2009;325:210–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cockayne NL, Duffy SL, Bonomally R, English A, Amminger PG, Mackinnon A, et al. The beyond ageing project phase 2—a double-blind, selective prevention, randomised, placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids and sertraline in an older age cohort at risk for depression: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2015;16:247.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly KR, Thase ME. Emerging drugs for major depressive disorder. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2012;17:105–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, Mann N, Lindeberg S, Watkins BA, et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81:341–54.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham C, O’Sullivan R, Caserotti P, Tully MA. Consequences of physical inactivity in older adults: a systematic review of reviews and meta-analyses. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2020;30(5):816–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cutuli D, De Bartolo P, Caporali P, Laricchiuta D, Foti F, Ronci M, et al. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation enhances hippocampal functionality in aged mice. Front Aging Neurosci. 2014;6:220.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cutuli D, Pagani M, Caporali P, Galbusera A, Laricchiuta D, Foti F, et al. Effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on cognitive functions and neural substrates: a voxel-based morphometry study in aged mice. Front Aging Neurosci. 2016;8:38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cutuli D, Landolfo E, Decandia D, Nobili A, Viscomi MT, La Barbera L, et al. Neuroprotective role of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids in the presence of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons degeneration in aged mice. Int J Mol Sci. 2020a;21:1741.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cutuli D, Landolfo E, Nobili A, De Bartolo P, Sacchetti S, Chirico D, et al. Behavioral, neuromorphological, and neurobiochemical effects induced by omega-3 fatty acids following basal forebrain cholinergic depletion in aged mice. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2020b;12:150.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cysneiros RM, Ferrari D, Arida RM, Terra VC, de Almeida AC, Cavalheiro EA, et al. Qualitative analysis of hippocampal plastic changes in rats with epilepsy supplemented with oral omega-3 fatty acids. Epilepsy Behav. 2010;17:33–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl J, Ormstad H, Aass HC, Malt UF, Bendz LT, Sandvik L, et al. The plasma levels of various cytokines are increased during ongoing depression and are reduced to normal levels after recovery. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2014;45:77–86.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis PF, Ozias MK, Carlson SE, Reed GA, Winter MK, McCarson KE, et al. Dopamine receptor alterations in female rats with diet-induced decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): interactions with reproductive status. Nutr Neurosci. 2010;13:161–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Moor MH, Boomsma DI, Stubbe JH, Willemsen G, de Geus EJ. Testing causality in the association between regular exercise and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008;65:897–905.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeMar JC, Ma K, Bell JM, Igarashi M, Greenstein D, Rapoport SI. One generation of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deprivation increases depression and aggression test scores in rats. J Lipid Res. 2006;47:172–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Denis I, Potier B, Vancassel S, Heberden C, Lavialle M. Omega-3 fatty acids and brain resistance to ageing and stress: body of evidence and possible mechanisms. Ageing Res Rev. 2013;12:579–94.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deslandes A, Moraes H, Ferreira C, Veiga H, Silveira H, Mouta R, Pompeu FA, Coutinho ES, Laks J. Exercise and mental health: many reasons to move. Neuropsychobiology. 2009;59:191–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deyama S, Minami M, Kaneda K. Resolvins as potential candidates for the treatment of major depressive disorder. J Pharmacol Sci. 2021;147:33–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dishman RK. Brain monoamines, exercise, and behavioral stress: animal models. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;29:63–74.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dishman RK. The new emergence of exercise neurobiology. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2006;16:379–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Du L, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Zhu J, Yang Y, Zhang HL. Role of microglia in neurological disorders and their potentials as a therapeutic target. Mol Neurobiol. 2017;54(10):7567–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ducrocq F, Walle R, Contini A, Oummadi A, Caraballo B, van der Veldt S, et al. Causal link between n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency and motivation deficits. Cell Metab. 2020;31:755–772.e7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duman RS. Neural plasticity: consequences of stress and actions of antidepressant treatment. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2004;6:157–69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duman RS. Neuronal damage and protection in the pathophysiology and treatment of psychiatric illness: stress and depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2009;11:239–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duman RS, Monteggia LM. A neurotrophic model for stress-related mood disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59:1116–27.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duric V, McCarson KE. Hippocampal neurokinin-1 receptor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene expression is decreased in rat models of pain and stress. Neuroscience. 2005;133:999–1006.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dyall SC, Michael GJ, Michael-Titus AT. Omega-3 fatty acids reverse age-related decreases in nuclear receptors and increase neurogenesis in old rats. J Neurosci Res. 2010;88:2091–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dyall SC, Mandhair HK, Fincham RE, Kerr DM, Roche M, Molina-Holgado F. Distinctive effects of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in regulating neural stem cell fate are mediated via endocannabinoid signalling pathways. Neuropharmacology. 2016;107:387–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eadie BD, Redila VA, Christie BR. Voluntary exercise alters the cytoarchitecture of the adult dentate gyrus by increasing cellular proliferation, dendritic complexity, and spine density. J Comp Neurol. 2005;486:39–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekdahl CT, Claasen JH, Bonde S, Kokaia Z, Lindvall O. Inflammation is detrimental for neurogenesis in adult brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003;100:13632–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erickson KI, Miller DL, Roecklein KA. The aging hippocampus: interactions between exercise, depression, and BDNF. Neuroscientist. 2012;18:82–97.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst C, Olson AK, Pinel JP, Lam RW, Christie BR. Antidepressant effects of exercise: evidence for an adult-neurogenesis hypothesis? J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2006;31:84–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erny D, Hrabe De Angelis AL, Jaitin D, Wieghofer P, Staszewski O, David E, et al. Host microbiota constantly control maturation and function of microglia in the CNS. Nat Neurosci. 2015;18:965–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eyre H, Baune BT. Neuroplastic changes in depression: a role for the immune system. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2012;37:1397–416.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farioli-Vecchioli S, Saraulli D, Costanzi M, Pacioni S, Cinà I, Aceti M, et al. The timing of differentiation of adult hippocampal neurons is crucial for spatial memory. PLoS Biol. 2008;6:e246.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqui AA, Horrocks LA, Farooqui T. Modulation of inflammation in brain: a matter of fat. J Neurochem. 2007;101:577–99.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fedorova I, Salem N. Omega-3 fatty acids and rodent behavior. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2006;75:271–89.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fedorova I, Hussein N, Baumann MH, Di Martino C, Salem N. An n-3 fatty acid deficiency impairs rat spatial learning in the Barnes maze. Behav Neurosci. 2009;123:196–205.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foley TE, Fleshner M. Neuroplasticity of dopamine circuits after exercise: implications for central fatigue. NeuroMolecular Med. 2008;10:67–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fujioka H, Akema T. Lipopolysaccharide acutely inhibits proliferation of neural precursor cells in the dentate gyrus in adult rats. Brain Res. 2010;1352:35–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ganança L, Oquendo MA, Tyrka AR, Cisneros-Trujillo S, Mann JJ, Sublette ME. The role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of suicidal behavior. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2016;63:296–310.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ge S, Goh EL, Sailor KA, Kitabatake Y, Ming GL, Song H. GABA regulates synaptic integration of newly generated neurons in the adult brain. Nature. 2006;439:589–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gebara E, Sultan S, Kocher-Braissant J, Toni N. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis inversely correlates with microglia in conditions of voluntary running and aging. Front Neurosci. 2013;20:145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons TE, Pence BD, Petr G, Ossyra JM, Mach HC, Bhattacharya TK, et al. Voluntary wheel running, but not a diet containing (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate and β-alanine, improves learning, memory and hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice. Behav Brain Res. 2014;272:131–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert K, Bernier J, Godbout R, Rousseau G. Resolvin D1, a metabolite of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, decreases post-myocardial infarct depression. Mar Drugs. 2014;12:5396–407.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez-Pinilla F. The influences of diet and exercise on mental health through hormesis. Ageing Res Rev. 2008;7:49–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez-Pinilla F. Collaborative effects of diet and exercise on cognitive enhancement. Nutr Health. 2011;20:165–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez-Pinilla F, Gomez AG. The influence of dietary factors in central nervous system plasticity and injury recovery. PM R. 2011;3:S111–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez-Pinilla F, Yang X. System biology approach intersecting diet and cell metabolism with pathogenesis of brain disorders. Prog Neurobiol. 2018;169:76–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez-Pinilla F, Dao L, So V. Physical exercise induces FGF-2 and its mRNA in the hippocampus. Brain Res. 1997;764:1–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez-Pinilla F, Ying Z, Opazo P, Roy RR, Edgerton VR. Differential regulation by exercise of BDNF and NT-3 in rat spinal cord and skeletal muscle. Eur J Neurosci. 2001;13:1078–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • González Olmo BM, Butler MJ, Barrientos RM. Evolution of the human diet and its impact on gut microbiota, immune responses, and brain health. Nutrients. 2021;13:196.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grayson DS, Kroenke CD, Neuringer M, Fair DA. Dietary omega-3 fatty acids modulate large-scale systems organization in the rhesus macaque brain. J Neurosci. 2014;34:2065–74.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greiner RS, Moriguchi T, Slotnick BM, Hutton A, Salem N. Olfactory discrimination deficits in n-3 fatty acid-deficient rats. Physiol Behav. 2001;72:379–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin ÉW, Mullally S, Foley C, Warmington SA, O’Mara SM, Kelly AM. Aerobic exercise improves hippocampal function and increases BDNF in the serum of young adult males. Physiol Behav. 2011;104:934–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haag M. Essential fatty acids and the brain. Can J Psychiatr. 2003;48:195–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haleem DJ. Targeting Serotonin1A receptors for treating chronic pain and depression. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2019;17(12):1098–108.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamazaki K, Itomura M, Huan M, Nishizawa H, Sawazaki S, Tanouchi M, et al. Effect of omega-3 fatty acid-containing phospholipids on blood catecholamine concentrations in healthy volunteers: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Nutrition. 2005;21:705–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hashimoto M, Matsuzaki K, Kato S, Hossain S, Ohno M, Shido O. Twelve-month studies on perilla oil intake in Japanese adults-possible supplement for mental health. Foods. 2020;9:530.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayley S, Hakim AM, Albert PR. Depression, dementia and immune dysregulation. Brain. 2021;144(3):746–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • He C, Qu X, Cui L, Wang J, Kang JX. Improved spatial learning performance of fat-1 mice is associated with enhanced neurogenesis and neuritogenesis by docosahexaenoic acid. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009;106:11370–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hernández-Mercado K, Zepeda A. Morris water maze and contextual fear conditioning tasks to evaluate cognitive functions associated with adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Front Neurosci. 2022;15:782947.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hibbeln JR, Linnoila M, Umhau JC, Rawlings R, George DT, Salem N. Essential fatty acids predict metabolites of serotonin and dopamine in cerebrospinal fluid among healthy control subjects, and early- and late onset alcoholics. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;44:235–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hichami A, Datiche F, Ullah S, Liénard F, Chardigny JM, Cattarelli M, et al. Olfactory discrimination ability and brain expression of c-fos, Gir and Glut1 mRNA are altered in n-3 fatty acid-depleted rats. Behav Brain Res. 2007;184:1–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hidaka BH. Depression as a disease of modernity: explanations for increasing prevalence. J Affect Disord. 2012;140:205–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hooijmans CR, Pasker-de Jong PC, de Vries RB, Ritskes-Hoitinga M. The effects of long-term omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on cognition and Alzheimer’s pathology in animal models of Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Alzheimers Dis. 2012;28:191–209.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoshaw BA, Malberg JE, Lucki I. Central administration of IGF-I and BDNF leads to long-lasting antidepressant-like effects. Brain Res. 2005;1037:204–8. (Int J Psychiatry Med. 2011;41:15–28).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu MC, Tung CY, Chen HE. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in prevention andtreatment of maternal depression: putative mechanism and recommendation. J Affect Disord. 2018;238:47–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang WL, King VR, Curran OE, Dyall SC, Ward RE, Lal N, et al. A combination of intravenous and dietary docosahexaenoic acid significantly improves outcome after spinal cord injury. Brain. 2007;130:3004–19.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang R, Wang K, Hu J. Effect of probiotics on depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients. 2016;8:483.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hutton CP, Déry N, Rosa E, Lemon JA, Rollo CD, Boreham DR, et al. Synergistic effects of diet and exercise on hippocampal function in chronically stressed mice. Neuroscience. 2015;308:180–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Innes JK, Calder PC. Omega-6 fatty acids and inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2018;132:41–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacka FN, Berk M. Depression, diet and exercise. Med J Aust. 2013;199:S21–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacka FN, Kremer PJ, Leslie E, Berk M, Patton G, Toumbourou JW, et al. Associations between diet quality and depressed mood in adolescents: results from the healthy neighbourhoods study. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2010a;44:435–42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacka FN, Pasco JA, Mykletun A, Williams LJ, Hodge AM, O’Reilly SL, et al. Association of Western and traditional diets with depression and anxiety in women. Am J Psychiatry. 2010b;167:305–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacka FN, Pasco JA, Mykletun A, Williams LJ, Nicholson GC, Kotowicz MA, et al. Diet quality in bipolar disorder in a population-based sample of women. J Affect Disord. 2011a;129:332–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacka FN, Pasco JA, Williams LJ, Leslie ER, Dodd S, Nicholson GC, et al. Lower levels of physical activity in childhood associated with adult depression. J Sci Med Sport. 2011b;14:222–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacka FN, Mykletun A, Berk M. Moving towards a population health approach to the primary prevention of common mental disorders. BMC Med. 2012;10:149.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James MJ, Gibson RA, Cleland LG. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:343s–8s.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang LH, Shi Y, Wang LS, Yang ZR. The influence of orally administered docosahexaenoic acid on cognitive ability in aged mice. J Nutr Biochem. 2009;20:735–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston ST, Shtrahman M, Parylak S, Gonçalves JT, Gage FH. Paradox of pattern separation and adult neurogenesis: a dual role for new neurons balancing memory resolution and robustness. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2015;S1074:000193–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Josefsson T, Lindwall M, Archer T. Physical exercise intervention indepressive disorders: meta-analysis and systematic review. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24(2):259–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joseph MS, Ying Z, Zhuang Y, Zhong H, Wu A, Bhatia HS, et al. Effects of diet and/or exercise in enhancing spinal cord sensorimotor learning. PLoS One. 2012;7:e41288.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalkman HO, Hersberger M, Walitza S, Berger GE. Disentangling the molecular mechanisms of the antidepressant activity of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid: a comprehensive review of the literature. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:4393.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kandola A, Ashdown-Franks G, Hendrikse J, Sabiston CM, Stubbs B. Physical activity and depression: towards understanding the antidepressant mechanisms of physical activity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;107:525–39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kant AK. Consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods by adult Americans: nutritional and health implications. The third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:929–36.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kee N, Teixeira CM, Wang AH, Frankland PW. Preferential incorporation of adult-generated granule cells into spatial memory networks in the dentate gyrus. Nat Neurosci. 2007;3:355–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kempermann G, Jessberger S, Steiner B, Kronenberg G. Milestones of neuronal development in the adult hippocampus. Trends Neurosci. 2004;27:447–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kettenmann H, Hanisch UK, Noda M, Verkhratsky A. Physiology of microglia. Physiol Rev. 2011;91:461–553.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Belury MA, Andridge R, Malarkey WB, Hwang BS, Glaser R. Omega-3 supplementation lowers inflammation in healthy middle-aged and older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Brain Behav Immun. 2012;26:988–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Derry HM, Fagundes CP. Inflammation: depression fans the flames and feasts on the heat. Am J Psychiatry. 2015;172:1075–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Köbe T, Witte AV, Schnelle A, Lesemann A, Fabian S, Tesky VA, et al. Combined omega-3 fatty acids, aerobic exercise and cognitive stimulation prevents decline in gray matter volume of the frontal, parietal and cingulate cortex in patients with mild cognitive impairment. NeuroImage. 2016;131:226–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kohman RA, Rhodes JS. Neurogenesis, inflammation and behavior. Brain Behav Immun. 2013;27:22–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kohman RA, DeYoung EK, Bhattacharya TK, Peterson LN, Rhodes JS. Wheel running attenuates microglia proliferation and increases expression of a proneurogenic phenotype in the hippocampus of aged mice. Brain Behav Immun. 2012;26:803–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kok Kendirlioglu B, Unalan Ozpercin P, Yuksel Oksuz O, Sozen S, Cihnioglu R, Kalelioglu T, et al. Resolvin D1 as a novel anti-inflammatory marker in manic, depressive and euthymic states of bipolar disorder. Nord J Psychiatry. 2020;74:83–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kozorovitskiy Y, Gould E. Dominance hierarchy influences adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus. J Neurosci. 2004;24:6755–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kram ML, Kramer GL, Ronan PJ, Steciuk M, Petty F. Dopamine receptors and learned helplessness in the rat: an autoradiographic study. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2002;26:639–45.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krogh J, Videbech P, Renvillard SG, Garde AH, Jørgensen MB, Nordentoft M. Cognition and HPA axis reactivity in mildly to moderately depressed outpatients: a case-control study. Nord J Psychiatry. 2012;66:414–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuczmarski MF, Cremer Sees A, Hotchkiss L, Cotugna N, Evans MK, Zonderman AB. Higher healthy eating index-2005 scores associated with reduced symptoms of depression in an urban population: findings from the healthy aging in neighborhoods of diversity across the life span (HANDLS) study. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110:383–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kvam S, Kleppe CL, Nordhus IH, Hovland A. Exercise as a treatment for depression: a meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2016;202:67–86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lambert HW, Weiss ER, Lauder JM. Activation of 5-HT receptors that stimulate the adenylyl cyclase pathway positively regulates IGF-I in cultured craniofacial mesenchymal cells. Dev Neurosci. 2001;23:70–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamon-Fava S, So J, Mischoulon D, Ziegler TR, Dunlop BW, Kinkead B, et al. Dose- and time-dependent increase in circulating anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving lipid mediators following eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation in patients with major depressive disorder and chronic inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2021;164:102219.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laplagne DA, Espósito MS, Piatti VC, Morgenstern NA, Zhao C, van Praag H, Gage FH, et al. Functional convergence of neurons generated in the developing and adult hippocampus. PLoS Biol. 2006;12:e409.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laplagne DA, Kamienkowski JE, Espósito MS, Piatti VC, Zhao C, Gage FH, et al. Similar GABAergic inputs in dentate granule cells born during embryonic and adult neurogenesis. Eur J Neurosci. 2007;25:2973–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laske C, Banschbach S, Stransky E, Bosch S, Straten G, Machann J, et al. Exercise-induced normalization of decreased BDNF serum concentration in elderly women with remitted major depression. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010;13:595–602.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lattari E, Arias-Carrión O, Monteiro-Junior RS, Mello Portugal EM, Paes F, Menéndez-González M, Silva AC, Nardi AE, Machado S. Implications of movement-related cortical potential for understanding neural adaptations in muscle strength tasks. Int Arch Med. 2014;7:9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lecques JD, Kerr BJK, Hillyer LM, Kang JX, Robinson LE, Ma DWL. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ameliorate neurobehavioral outcomes post-mild traumatic brain injury in the Fat-1 mouse model. Nutrients. 2021;13:4092.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee BH, Kim YK. The roles of BDNF in the pathophysiology of major depression and in antidepressant treatment. Psychiatry Investig. 2010;7:231–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard B, Maes M. Mechanistic explanations how cell-mediated immune activation, inflammation and oxidative and nitrosative stress pathways and their sequels and concomitants play a role in the pathophysiology of unipolar depression. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2012;36:764–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levant B. N-3 (omega-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression: pre-clinical evidence. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2013;12:450–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levant B, Ozias MK, Davis PF, Winter M, Russell KL, Carlson SE, et al. Decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid content produces neurobiological effects associated with depression: interactions with reproductive status in female rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2008;33:1279–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liao Y, Xie B, Zhang H, He Q, Guo L, Subramanieapillai M, et al. Efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs in depression: a meta-analysis. Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9:190. Erratum in: Transl Psychiatry. 2021;11:465.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Littlefield AM, Setti SE, Priester C, Kohman RA. Voluntary exercise attenuates LPS-induced reductions in neurogenesis and increases microglia expression of a proneurogenic phenotype in aged mice. J Neuroinflammation. 2015;12:138.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu RT, Walsh RFL, Sheehan AE. Prebiotics and probiotics for depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;102:13–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lodge M, Hernandez MC, Schulz JM, Bischofberger J. Sparsification of AP firing in adult-born hippocampal granule cells via voltage-dependentα5-GABAA receptors. Cell Rep. 2021;37(1):109768.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • López-Torres Hidalgo J, DEP-EXERCISE Group. Effectiveness of physical exercise in the treatment of depression in older adults as an alternative to antidepressant drugs in primary care. BMC Psychiatry. 2019;19(1):21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopresti AL, Hood SD, Drummond PD. A review of lifestyle factors that contribute to important pathways associated with major depression: diet, sleep and exercise. J Affect Disord. 2013;148(1):12–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lucassen PJ, Meerlo P, Naylor AS, van Dam AM, Dayer AG, Fuchs E, et al. Regulation of adult neurogenesis by stress, sleep disruption, exercise and inflammation: implications for depression and antidepressant action. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010;20:1–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luchtman DW, Song C. Cognitive enhancement by omega-3 fatty acids from child-hood to old age: findings from animal and clinical studies. Neuropharmacology. 2013;64:550–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch AM, Murphy KJ, Deighan BF, O’Reilly JA, Gun’ko YK, Cowley TR, et al. The impact of glial activation in the aging brain. Aging Dis. 2010;1:262–78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malberg JE. Implications of adult hippocampal neurogenesis in antidepressant action. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2004;29:196–205.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maletic V, Robinson M, Oakes T, Iyengar S, Ball SG, Russell J. Neurobiology of depression: an integrated view of key findings. Int J Clin Pract. 2007;61:2030–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mamplekou E, Bountziouka V, Psaltopoulou T, Zeimbekis A, Tsakoundakis N, Papaerakleous N, et al. Urban environment, physical inactivity and unhealthy dietary habits correlate to depression among elderly living in eastern Mediterranean islands: the MEDIS (MEDiterranean ISlands Elderly) study. J Nutr Health Aging. 2010;14:449–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markakis EA, Gage FH. Adult-generated neurons in the dentate gyrus send axonal projections to field CA3 and are surrounded by synaptic vesicles. J Comp Neurol. 1999;406:449–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marriott BP, Hibbeln JR, Killeen TK, Magruder KM, Holes-Lewis K, Tolliver BK, et al. Design and methods for the better resiliency among veterans and non-veterans with omega-3’s (BRAVO) study: a double blind, placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation among adult individuals at risk of suicide. Contemp Clin Trials. 2016;47:325–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maruszak A, Pilarski A, Murphy T, Branch N, Thuret S. Hippocampal neurogenesis in Alzheimer’s disease: is there a role for dietary modulation? J Alzheimers Dis. 2014;38:11–38.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marx W, Lane M, Hockey M, Aslam H, Berk M, Walder K, et al. Diet and depression: exploring the biological mechanisms of action. Mol Psychiatry. 2021;26:134–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maslanik T, Mahaffey L, Tannura K, Beninson L, Greenwood BN, Fleshner M. The inflammasome and danger associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are implicated in cytokine and chemokine responses following stressor exposure. Brain Behav Immun. 2013;28:54–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matthes S, Mosienko V, Bashammakh S, Alenina N, Bader M. Tryptophan hydroxylase as novel target for the treatment of depressive disorders. Pharmacology. 2010;85:95–109.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattson MP, Maudsley S, Martin B. BDNF and 5-HT: a dynamic duo in age-related neuronal plasticity and neurodegenerative disorders. Trends Neurosci. 2004;27:589–94.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGeown JP, Hume PA, Theadom A, Quarrie KL, Borotkanics R. Nutritional interventions to improve neurophysiological impairments following traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. J Neurosci Res. 2021;99:573–603.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara RK. DHA deficiency and prefrontal cortex neuropathology in recurrent affective disorders. J Nutr. 2010;140:864–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara RK. Mitigation of inflammation-induced mood dysregulation by long-chain omega-3 fatty acids. J Am Coll Nutr. 2015;34:48–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara RK, Hahn CG, Jandacek R, Rider T, Tso P, Stanford KE, et al. Selective deficits in the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid in the postmortem orbitofrontal cortex of patients with major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62:17–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara RK, Able J, Liu Y, Jandacek R, Rider T, Tso P, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency during perinatal development increases serotonin turnover in the prefrontal cortex and decreases midbrain tryptophan hydroxylase-2 expression in adult female rats: dissociation from estrogenic effects. J Psychiatr Res. 2009;43:656–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara RK, Jandacek R, Rider T, Tso P, Cole-Strauss A, Lipton JW. Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency increases constitutive proinflammatory cytokine production in rats: relationship with central serotonin turnover. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2010;83:185–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara RK, Vannest JJ, Valentine CJ. Role of perinatal long-chain omega-3 fatty acids in cortical circuit maturation: mechanisms and implications for psychopathology. World J Psychiatry. 2015;5:15–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mead GE, Morley W, Campbell P, Greig CA, McMurdo M, Lawlor DA. Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;8:CD004366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melancon MO, Lorrain D, Dionne IJ. Exercise increases tryptophan availability to the brain in older men age 57–70 years. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44:881–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meller R, Babity JM, Grahame-Smith DG. 5-HT2A receptor activation leads to increased BDNF mRNA expression in C6 glioma cells. Neuromolecular Med. 2002;1:197–205.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mervaala E, Föhr J, Könönen M, Valkonen-Korhonen M, Vainio P, Partanen K, et al. Quantitative MRI of the hippocampus and amygdala in severe depression. Psychol Med. 2000;30:117–25.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer JH, Ginovart N, Boovariwala A, Sagrati S, Hussey D, Garcia A, et al. Elevated monoamineoxidase a levels in the brain: an explanation for the monoamine imbalance of major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:1209–16.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller AH, Maletic V, Raison CL. Inflammation and its discontents: the role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;65:732–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mills JD, Hadley K, Bailes JE. Dietary supplementation with the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid in traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery. 2011;68:474–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mirescu C, Peters JD, Noiman L, Gould E. Sleep deprivation inhibits adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus by elevating glucocorticoids. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103:19170–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mischoulon D. The impact of omega-3 fatty acids on depressive disorders and suicidality: can we reconcile 2 studies with seemingly contradictory results? J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72:1574–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mocking RJ, Harmsen I, Assies J, Koeter MW, Ruhé HG, Schene AH. Meta-analysis and meta-regression of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for major depressive disorder. Transl Psychiatry. 2016;6:e756.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Molendijk M, Molero P, Ortuño Sánchez-Pedreño F, Van der Does W, Angel Martínez-González M. Diet quality and depression risk: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Affect Disord. 2018;226:346–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moriguchi T, Greiner RS, Salem N. Behavioral deficits associated with dietary induction of decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid concentration. J Neurochem. 2000;75:2563–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy T, Dias GP, Thuret S. Effects of diet on brain plasticity in animal and human studies: mind the gap. Neural Plast. 2014;2014:563160.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nanri A, Kimura Y, Matsushita Y, Ohta M, Sato M, Mishima N, et al. Dietary patterns and depressive symptoms among Japanese men and women. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2010;64:832–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neeper SA, Gómez-Pinilla F, Choi J, Cotman CW. Physical activity increases mRNA for brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in rat brain. Brain Res. 1996;726:49–56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nizzo MC, Tegos S, Gallamini A, Toffano G, Polleri A, Massarotti M. Brain cortex phospholipids liposomes effects on CSF HVA, 5-HIAA and on prolactin and somatotropin secretion in man. J Neural Transm. 1978;43:93–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oddy WH, Robinson M, Ambrosini GL, O’Sullivan TA, de Klerk NH, Beilin LJ, et al. The association between dietary patterns and mental health in early adolescence. Prev Med. 2009;49:39–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orihuela R, McPherson CA, Harry GJ. Microglial M1/M2 polarization and metabolic states. Br J Pharmacol. 2016;173:649–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Overby N, Hoigaard R. Diet and behavioral problems at school in Norwegian adolescents. Adv Food Nutr Res. 2012;56:1142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papp M, Klimek V, Willner P. Parallel changes in dopamine D2 receptor binding in limbic forebrain associated with chronic mild stress induced anhedonia and its reversal by imipramine. Psychopharmacology. 1994;115:441–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park JY, You JS, Chang KJ. Dietary taurine intake, nutrients intake, dietaryhabits and life stress by depression in Korean female college students: a case–control study. J Biomed Sci. 2010;17:S40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park Y, Moon HJ, Kim SH. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid consumption produces neurobiological effects associated with prevention of depression in rats after the forced swimming test. J Nutr Biochem. 2012;23:924–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pasco JA, Williams LJ, Jacka FN, Henry MJ, Coulson CE, Brennan SL, et al. Habitual physical activity and the risk for depressive and anxiety disorders among older men and women. Int Psychogeriatr. 2011;23:292–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pittet YK, Berger MM, Pluess TT, Voirol P, Revelly JP, Tappy L, et al. Blunting the response to endotoxin in healthy subjects: effects of various doses of intravenous fish oil. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36:289–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pluess TT, Hayoz D, Berger MM, Tappy L, Revelly JP, Michaeli B, et al. Intravenousfish oil blunts the physiological response to endotoxin in healthy subjects. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:789–97.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pons S, Torres-Aleman I. Basic fibroblast growth factor modulates insulin-like growth factor-I, its receptor, and its binding proteins in hypothalamic cell cultures. Endocrinology. 1992;131:2271–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pottala JV, Yaffe K, Robinson JG, Espeland MA, Wallace R, Harris WS. Higher RBC EPA + DHA corresponds with larger total brain and hippocampal volumes: WHIMS-MRI study. Neurology. 2014;82:435–42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Puri BK, Counsell SJ, Hamilton G, Richardson AJ, Horrobin DF. Eicosapentaenoic acid in treatment-resistant depression associated with symptom remission, structural brain changes and reduced neuronal phospholipid turnover. Int J Clin Pract. 2001;55:560–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raichlen DA, Foster AD, Gerdeman GL, Seillier A, Giuffrida A. Wired to run: exercise-induced endocannabinoid signaling in humans and cursorial mammals with implications for the ‘runner’s high. J Exp Biol. 2012;215:1331–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raison CL, Miller AH. Is depression an inflammatory disorder? Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2011;13:467–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raji CA, Erickson KI, Lopez OL, Kuller LH, Gach HM, Thompson PM, et al. Regular fish consumption and age-related brain gray matter loss. Am J Prev Med. 2014;47:444–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rao JS, Ertley RN, Lee HJ, DeMar JC, Arnold JT, Rapoport SI, et al. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deprivation in rats decreases frontal cortex BDNF via a p38 MAPK-dependent mechanism. Mol Psychiatry. 2007;12:36–46.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rivero G, Gabilondo AM, García-Sevilla JA, La Harpe R, Callado LF, Meana JJ. Increased α2- and β1-adrenoceptor densities in postmortem brain of subjects with depression: differential effect of antidepressant treatment. J Affect Disord. 2014;167:343–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robson LG, Dyall S, Sidloff D, Michael-Titus AT. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids increase the neurite outgrowth of rat sensory neurones throughout development and in aged animals. Neurobiol Aging. 2010;31:678–87.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenblat JD, McIntyre RS. Bipolar disorder and inflammation. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2016;39:125–37.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russo-Neustadt A, Beard RC, Cotman CW. Exercise, antidepressant medications, and enhanced brain derived neurotrophic factor expression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999;21:679–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruxton CHS, Calder PC, Reed SC, Simpson MJ. The impact of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on human health. Nutr Res Rev. 2005;18:113–29.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan SM, Nolan YM. Neuroinflammation negatively affects adult hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition: can exercise compensate? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016;61:121–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saarni SI, Suvisaari J, Sintonen H, Pirkola S, Koskinen S, Aromaa A, et al. Impact of psychiatric disorders on health-related quality of life: general population survey. Br J Psychiatry. 2007;190:326–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salem N, Litman B, Kim HY, Gawrisch K. Mechanisms of action of docosahexaenoic acid in the nervous system. Lipids. 2001;36:945–59.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Samieri C, Jutand MA, Feart C, Capuron L, Letenneur L, Barberger-Gateau P. Dietary patterns derived by hybrid clustering method in older people: association with cognition, mood, and self-rated health. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008;108:1461–71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Samieri C, Maillard P, Crivello F, Proust-Lima C, Peuchant E, Helmer C, et al. Plasma long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and atrophy of the medial temporal lobe. Neurology. 2012;79:642–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez-Villegas A, Delgado-Rodriguez M, Alonso A, Schlatter J, Lahortiga F, Serra Majem L, et al. Association of the Mediterranean dietary pattern with the incidence of depression: the Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra/University of Navarra follow-up (SUN) cohort. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66:1090–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Santarelli L, Saxe M, Gross C, Surget A, Battaglia F, Dulawa S, et al. Requirement of hippocampal neurogenesis for the behavioral effects of antidepressants. Science. 2003;301:805–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarris J. Clinical depression: an evidence-based integrative complementary medicine treatment model. Altern Ther Health Med. 2011;17:26–37.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schättin A, de Bruin ED. Combining exergame training with omega-3 fatty acid supplementation: protocol for a randomized controlled study assessing the effect on neuronal structure/function in the elderly brain. Front Aging Neurosci. 2016;8:283.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schättin A, Baier C, Mai D, Klamroth-Marganska V, Herter-Aeberli I, de Bruin ED. Effects of exergame training combined with omega-3 fatty acids on the elderly brain: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. BMC Geriatr. 2019;19:81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt-Hieber C, Jonas P, Bischofberger J. Enhanced synaptic plasticity in newly generated granule cells of the adult hippocampus. Nature. 2004;429:184–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuch FB, Vancampfort D, Richards J, Rosenbaum S, Ward PB, Stubbs B. Exercise as a treatment for depression: a meta-analysis adjusting for publication bias. J Psychiatr Res. 2016;77:42–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Serhan CN. Novel eicosanoid and docosanoid mediators: resolvins, docosatrienes, and neuroprotectins. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2005;8:115–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro GD, Fraser WD, Séguin JR. Emerging risk factors for postpartum depression: serotonin transporter genotype and omega-3 fatty acid status. Can J Psychiatr. 2012;57:704–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheline YI, Wang PW, Gado MH, Csernansky JG, Vannier MW. Hippocampal atrophy in recurrent major depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996;93:3908–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shimizu E, Hashimoto K, Okamura N, Koike K, Komatsu N, Kumakiri C, et al. Alterations of serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in depressed patients with or without antidepressants. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;54:70–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shors TJ, Miesegaes G, Beylin A, Zhao M, Rydel T, Gould E. Neurogenesis in the adult is involved in the formation of trace memories. Nature. 2001;410:372–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sierra A, Encinas JM, Deudero JJ, Chancey JH, Enikolopov G, Overstreet-Wadiche LS, et al. Microglia shape adult hippocampal neurogenesis through apoptosis-coupled phagocytosis. Cell Stem Cell. 2010;7:483–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sierra A, Tremblay MÈ, Wake H. Never-resting microglia: physiological roles in the healthy brain and pathological implications. Front Cell Neurosci. 2014;15:240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinn N, Milte C, Howe PRC. Oiling the brain: a review of randomized controlled trials of omega-3 fatty acids in psychopathology across the lifespan. Nutrients. 2010;2:128–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder J, Hong NS, McDonald RJ, Wojtowicz JM. A role for adult neurogenesis in spatial long-term memory. Neuroscience. 2005;130:843–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Song C, Li X, Leonard BE, Horrobin DF. Effects of dietary n-3 or n-6 fatty acids on interleukin-1beta-induced anxiety, stress, and inflammatory responses in rats. J Lipid Res. 2003;44:1984–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Song MR, Lee YS, Baek JD, Miller M. Physical activity status in adults with depression in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2006. Public Health Nurs. 2012;29:208–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Song C, Shieh CH, Wu YS, Kalueff A, Gaikwad S, Su KP. The role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in the treatment of major depression and Alzheimer’s disease: acting separately or synergistically? Prog Lipid Res. 2016;62:41–54.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sorrells SF, Sapolsky RM. An inflammatory review of glucocorticoid actions in the CNS. Brain Behav Immun. 2007;21:259–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Speisman RB, Kumar A, Rani A, Foster TC, Ormerod BK. Daily exercise improves memory, stimulates hippocampal neurogenesis and modulates immune and neuroimmune cytokines in aging rats. Brain Behav Immun. 2013;28:25–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steffens DC, Byrum CE, McQuoid DR, Greenberg DL, Payne ME, Blitchington TF, et al. Hippocampal volume in geriatric depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48:301–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stemmelin J, Cohen C, Terranova JP, Lopez-Grancha M, Pichat P, Bergis O, et al. Stimulation of the beta3-Adrenoceptor as a novel treatment strategy for anxiety and depressive disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008;33:574–87.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stephens T. Physical activity and mental health in the United States and Canada: evidence from four population surveys. Prev Med. 1988;17:35–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stranahan AM, Khalil D, Gould E. Social isolation delays the positive effects of running on adult neurogenesis. Nat Neurosci. 2006;9:526–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ströhle A, Stoy M, Graetz B, Scheel M, Wittmann A, Gallinat J, et al. Acute exercise ameliorates reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor in patients with panic disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2010;35:364–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Su KP. Biological mechanism of antidepressant effect of omega-3 fatty acids: how does fish oil act as a ‘mind-body interface’? Neurosignals. 2009;17:144–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Su KP, Huang SY, Peng CY, Lai HC, Huang CL, Chen YC, et al. Phospholipase A2 and cyclooxygenase 2 genes influence the risk of interferon-alpha-induced depression by regulating polyunsaturated fatty acids levels. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;67:550–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Su KP, Lai HC, Yang HT, Su WP, Peng CY, Chang JP, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of interferon-alpha-induced depression: results from a randomized, controlled trial. Biol Psychiatry. 2014;76:559–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sublette ME, Ellis SP, Geant AL, Mann JJ. Meta-analysis of the effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in clinical trials in depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72:1577–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sublette ME, Galfalvy HC, Hibbeln JR, Keilp JG, Malone KM, Oquendo MA, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acid associations with dopaminergic indices in major depressive disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;17:383–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Subramaniam M, Abdin E, Vaingankar JA, Nan L, Heng D, McCrone P, et al. Impact of psychiatric disorders and chronic physical conditions on health-related quality of life: Singapore Mental Health Study. J Affect Disord. 2013;147:325–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suominen K, Haukka J, Valtonen HM, Lönnqvist J. Outcome of patients with major depressive disorder after serious suicide attempt. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;70:1372–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swardfager W, Rosenblat JD, Benlamri M, McIntyre RS. Mapping inflammation onto mood: inflammatory mediators of anhedonia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016;64:148–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takeuchi T, Fukumoto Y, Harada E. Influence of a dietary n-3 fatty acid deficiency on the cerebral catecholamine contents, EEG and learning ability in rat. Behav Brain Res. 2002;131:193–203.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan ZS, Harris WS, Beiser AS, Au R, Himali JJ, Debette S, et al. Red blood cell ω-3 fatty acid levels and markers of accelerated brain aging. Neurology. 2012;78:658–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tanapat P, Hastings NB, Rydel TA, Galea LA, Gould E. Exposure to fox odor inhibits cell proliferation in the hippocampus of adult rats via an adrenal hormone-dependent mechanism. J Comp Neurol. 2001;437:496–504.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tashiro A, Makino H, Gage FH. Experience-specific functional modification of the dentate gyrus through adult neurogenesis: a critical period during an immature stage. J Neurosci. 2007;27:3252–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Titova OE, Sjögren P, Brooks SJ, Kullberg J, Ax E, Kilander L, et al. Dietary intake of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids is linked to gray matter volume and cognitive function in elderly. Age. 2013;35:1495–505.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trejo JL, Llorens-Martín MV, Torres-Alemán I. The effects of exercise on spatial learning and anxiety-like behavior are mediated by an IGF-I-dependent mechanism related to hippocampal neurogenesis. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2008;37:402–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Troubat R, Barone P, Leman S, Desmidt T, Cressant A, Atanasova B, et al. Neuroinflammation and depression: a review. Eur J Neurosci. 2021;53(1):151–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tuncdemir SN, Lacefield CO, Hen R. Contributions of adult neurogenesis to dentate gyrus network activity and computations. Behav Brain Res. 2019;374:112112.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vahid-Ansari F, Albert PR. Rewiring of the serotonin system in major depression. Front Psych. 2021;12:802581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vancassel S, Leman S, Hanonick L, Denis S, Roger J, Nollet M, et al. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation reverses stress-induced modifications on brain monoamine levels in mice. J Lipid Res. 2008;49:340–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venna VR, Deplanque D, Allet C, Belarbi K, Hamdane M, Bordet R. PUFA induce antidepressant-like effects in parallel to structural and molecular changes in the hippocampus. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009;34:199–211.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vetulani J, Sulser F. Action of various antidepressant treatments reduces reactivity of noradrenergic cAMP generating system in limbic forebrain. Nature. 1975;22:181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Videbech P, Ravnkilde B. Hippocampal volume and depression: a meta-analysis of MRI studies. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161:1957–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vines A, Delattre AM, Lima MM, Rodrigues LS, Suchecki D, Machado RB, et al. The role of 5-HT(1A) receptors in fish oil-mediated increased BDNF expression in the rat hippocampus and cortex: a possible antidepressant mechanism. Neuropharmacology. 2011;62:184–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Virtanen JK, Siscovick DS, Lemaitre RN, Longstreth WT, Spiegelman D, Rimm EB, et al. Circulating omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and subclinical brain abnormalities on MRI in older adults: the cardiovascular health study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2013;2:e000305.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vu NQ, Aizenstein HJ. Depression in the elderly: brain correlates, neuropsychological findings, and role of vascular lesion load. Curr Opin Neurol. 2013;26:656–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vukovic J, Colditz MJ, Blackmore DG, Ruitenberg MJ, Bartlett PF. Microglia modulate hippocampal neural precursor activity in response to exercise and aging. J Neurosci. 2012;32:6435–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walton NM, Sutter BM, Laywell ED, Levkoff LH, Kearns SM, Marshall GP 2nd, et al. Microglia instruct subventricular zone neurogenesis. Glia. 2006;54:815–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Franceschi D, Logan J, Pappas NR, et al. PET studies of the effects of aerobic exercise on human striatal dopamine release. J Nucl Med. 2000;41:1352–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang P, Liang Y, Chen K, Yau SY, Sun X, Cheng KK, et al. Potential involvement of adiponectin signaling in regulating physical exercise-elicited hippocampal neurogenesis and dendritic morphology in stressed mice. Front Cell Neurosci. 2020;14:189.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weicker H, Strüder HK. Influence of exercise on serotonergic neuromodulation in the brain. Amino Acids. 2001;20:35–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weng TT, Hao JH, Qian QW, Cao H, Fu JL, Sun Y, et al. Is there any relationship between dietary patterns and depression and anxiety in Chinese adolescents? Public Health Nutr. 2012;15:673–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westacott LJ, Haan N, Evison C, Marei O, Hall J, Hughes TR, et al. Dissociable effects of complement C3 and C3aR on survival and morphology of adult born hippocampal neurons, pattern separation, and cognitive flexibility in male mice. Brain Behav Immun. 2021;98:136–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. Depression and other common mental disorders: global health estimates. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wipfli B, Landers D, Nagoshi C, Ringenbach S. An examination of serotonin and psychological variables in the relationship between exercise and mental health. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2011;21:474–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Witte AV, Kerti L, Hermannstädter HM, Fiebach JB, Schreiber SJ, Schuchardt JP, et al. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids improve brain function and structure in older adults. Cereb Cortex. 2014;24:3059–68.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woo J. Nutritional strategies for successful aging. Med Clin North Am. 2011;95:477–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu A, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. Dietary omega-3 fatty acids normalize BDNF levels, reduce oxidative damage, and counteract learning disability after traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurotrauma. 2004;21:1457–67.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu A, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation restores mechanisms that maintain brain homeostasis in traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24:1587–95.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu A, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. Docosahexaenoic acid dietary supplementation enhances the effects of exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition. Neuroscience. 2008;155:751–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu A, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. The salutary effects of DHA dietary supplementation on cognition, neuroplasticity, and membrane homeostasis after brain trauma. J Neurotrauma. 2011;28:2113–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu A, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. Exercise facilitates the action of dietary DHA on functional recovery after brain trauma. Neuroscience. 2013;248:655–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu A, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. Dietary strategy to repair plasma membrane after brain trauma: implications for plasticity and cognition. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2014;28:75–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu YQ, Dang RL, Tang MM, Cai HL, Li HD, Liao DH, et al. Long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation alleviates doxorubicin-induced depressive-like behaviors and neurotoxicity in rats: involvement of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Nutrients. 2016;8:243.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu H, Deng K, Lin Z, Huang Z, Gong X, Tan J, et al. The effects of physical activity and sedentary behavior in the associations between cardiovascular diseases and depression: a four-way decomposition. J Affect Disord. 2020;275:194–201.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yau SY, Lau BW, So KF. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis: a possible way how physical exercise counteracts stress. Cell Transplant. 2011;20:99–111.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yau SY, Li A, Hoo RL, Ching YP, Christie BR, Lee TM, et al. Physical exercise-induced hippocampal neurogenesis and antidepressant effects are mediated by the adipocyte hormone adiponectin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014;111:15810–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yirmiya R, Rimmerman N, Reshef R. Depression as a microglial disease. Trends Neurosci. 2015;38(10):637–58.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan Y, Wu C, Ling EA. Heterogeneity of microglia phenotypes: developmental, functional and some therapeutic considerations. Curr Pharm Des. 2019;25(21):2375–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Chen Y, Ma L. Depression and cardiovascular disease in elderly: current understanding. J Clin Neurosci. 2018;47:1–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao Y, Shen J, Su H, Li B, Xing D, Du L. Chronic corticosterone injections induce a decrease of ATP levels and sustained activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in hippocampal tissues of male mice. Brain Res. 2008;29:148–56.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Research Council, Monterotondo, RM, Italy

    Stefano Farioli-Vecchioli

  2. Lab of Experimental and Behavioral Neurophysiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy

    Debora Cutuli

  3. Department of Psychology, University Sapienza of Rome, Rome, Italy

    Debora Cutuli

Authors
  1. Stefano Farioli-Vecchioli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Debora Cutuli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stefano Farioli-Vecchioli .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Santa Lucia Foundation IRCCS, Rome, Italy

    Laura Petrosini

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Farioli-Vecchioli, S., Cutuli, D. (2023). Functional Role of Physical Exercise and Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Depression and Mood Disorders. In: Petrosini, L. (eds) Neurobiological and Psychological Aspects of Brain Recovery. Contemporary Clinical Neuroscience. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24930-3_12

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation