Abstract
Morphogen gradients provide positional information in many developing systems. Morphogens are diffusible molecules produced from localized sources; they diffuse through tissues and are cleared. The spatial concentration gradient of morphogen-receptor complexes induces spatially graded differences in cell signaling, which lead to different stable cell fates and visual tissue patterns during development. The formation of morphogen gradients is among the most fundamental biological processes during development, regeneration, and disease. In this chapter, we introduce mathematical models for the dynamics of morphogen gradients and methods to analyze morphogen gradients and the robustness of the steady state.
Science may be described as the art of systematic oversimplification.
—Karl Popper
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Wolpert, L.: Positional information and the spatial pattern of cellular differentiation. J. Theor. Biol. 25, 1–47 (1969)
Wolpert, L.: Positional information and patterning revisited. J. Theor. Biol. 269, 359–365 (2011)
Lander, A.D.: How cells know where they are. Science 339, 923–927 (2013)
Briscoe, J., Small, S.: Morphogen rules: design principles of gradient-mediated embryo patterning. Development 142, 3996–4009 (2015)
Wartlick, O., Mumcu, P., Jülicher, F., Gonzalez-Gaitan, M.: Understanding morphogenetic growth control–lessons from flies. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 12, 594–604 (2011a)
Kondo, S., Miura, T.: Reaction-diffusion model as a framework for understanding biological pattern formation. Science 329, 1616–1620 (2010)
Lander, A.D.: Pattern, growth, and control. Cell 144, 955–969 (2011)
Morelli, L.G.L., Uriu, K.K., Ares, S.S., Oates, A.C.A.: Computational approaches to developmental patterning. Science 336, 187–191 (2012)
Maini, P.K., Woolley, T.E., Baker, R.E., Gaffney, E.A., Lee, S.S.: Turing’s model for biological pattern formation and the robustness problem. Interf. Focus 2, 487–496 (2012)
Umulis, D.M., Othmer, H.G.: The role of mathematical models in understanding pattern formation in developmental biology. Bull. Math. Biol. 77, 817–845 (2015)
Wartlick, O., Kicheva, A., González-Gaitán, M.: Morphogen gradient formation. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 1, a001255–a001255 (2009)
Wolpert, L., Tickle, C.: Principles of Development. Academic Press, Oxford (2010)
Dessaud, E., Ribes, V., Balaskas, N., Yang, L.L., Pierani, A., Kicheva, A., Novitch, B.G., Briscoe, J., Sasai, N.: Dynamic assignment and maintenance of positional identity in the ventral neural tube by the morphogen sonic hedgehog. PLoS Biol. 8, (2010)
Smith, J.: Forming and interpreting gradients in the early Xenopus embryo. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 1, (2009)
Smith, J., Hagemann, A., Saka, Y., Williams, P.: Understanding how morphogens work. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B Biol. Sci. 363, 1387–1392 (2008)
Kam, R.K.T., Deng, Y., Chen, Y., Zhao, H.: Retinoic acid synthesis and functions in early embryonic development. Cell Biosci. 2, 11 (2012)
Affolter, M., Basler, K.: The decapentaplegic morphogen gradient: from pattern formation to growth regulation. Nat. Rev. Genet. 8, 663–674 (2007)
Nellen, D., Burke, R., Struhl, G., Basler, K.: Direct and long-range action of a Dpp morphogen gradient. Cell 85, 357–368 (1996)
Teleman, A.A., Cohen, S.M.: Dpp gradient formation in the Drosophila wing imaginal disc. Cell 103, 971–980 (2000)
Theisen, H., Syed, A., Nguyen, B.T., Lukacsovich, T., Purcell, J., Srivastava, G.P., Iron, D., Gaudenz, K., Nie, Q., Wan, F.Y.M., Waterman, M.L., Marsh, J.L.: Wingless directly represses DPP morphogen expression via an Armadillo/TCF/Brinker complex. PLoS ONE 2, e142–e510 (2007)
Gurdon, J.B., Bourillot, P.Y.: Morphogen gradient interpretation. Nature 413, 797–803 (2001)
Tabata, T.: Genetics of morphogen gradients. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2, 620–630 (2001)
Kicheva, A., González-Gaitán, M.: The decapentaplegic morphogen gradient: a precise definition. Curr. Opinion Cell Biol. 20, 137–143 (2008)
Crozatier, M., Glise, B., Vincent, A.: Patterns in evolution: veins of the Drosophila wing. Trends Genet. 20, 498–505 (2004)
Zecca, M., Basler, K., Struhl, G.: Sequential organizing activities of engrailed, hedgehog and decapentaplegic in the Drosophila wing. Development 121, 2265–2278 (1995)
Nellen, D., Affolter, M., Basler, K.: Receptor serine/threonine kinases implicated in the control of Drosophila body pattern by decapentaplegic. Cell 78, 225–237 (1994)
Schwank, G., Dalessi, S., Yang, S.-F., Yagi, R., de Lachapelle, A.M., Affolter, M., Bergmann, S., Basler, K.: Formation of the long range Dpp morphogen gradient. PLoS Biol. 9, (2011)
Lei, J., Lo, W.-C., Nie, Q.: Mathematical models of morphogen dynamics and growth control. Annals Math Sci. Appl. 1, 427–471 (2016)
Entchev, E.V., Schwabedissen, A., González-Gaitán, M.: Gradient formation of the TGF-beta homolog Dpp. Cell 103, 981–991 (2000)
Lander, A.D., Nie, Q., Wan, F.Y.M.: Do morphogen gradients arise by diffusion? Dev. Cell 2, 785–796 (2002)
Lander, A., Nie, Q., Wan, F.: Spatially distributed morphogen production and morphogen gradient formation. Math. Biosci. Eng 2, 239–262 (2005a)
Lander, A., Wan, F., Elledge, H., Mizutani, C., Bier, E., Nie, Q.: (2005b). Diverse paths to morphogen gradient robustness. submitted for publicaiton
Bollenbach, T., Pantazis, P., Kicheva, A., Bokel, C., Gonzalez-Gaitan, M., Julicher, F.: Precision of the Dpp gradient. Development 135, 1137–1146 (2008)
Kicheva, A., Pantazis, P., Bollenbach, T., Kalaidzidis, Y., Bittig, T., Jülicher, F., González-Gaitán, M.: Kinetics of morphogen gradient formation. Science 315, 521–525 (2007)
Sattinger, D.H.: Monotone methods in nonlinear elliptic and parabolic boundary value problems. Indiana Univ. Math. J. 21, 979–1000 (1972)
Lei, J., Wan, F.Y.M., Lander, A., Nie, Q.: Robustness of signaling gradient in drosophila wing imaginal disc. Discrete Contin. Dyn. Syst. B 16, 835–866 (2011)
Lou, Y., Nie, Q., Wan, F.Y.M.: Nonlinear Eigenvalue problems in the stability analysis of morphogen gradients. Studies Appl. Math. 113, 183–215 (2004)
Lou, Y., Nie, Q., Wan, F.Y.M.: Effects of Sog on Dpp-receptor binding. SIAM J. Appl. Math. 65, 1748–1771 (2005)
Vergas, B.: Leaky boundaries and morphogen gradietns. PhD thesis, Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine (2006)
Eldar, A., Rosin, D., Shilo, B.-Z., Barkai, N.: Self-enhanced ligand degradation underlies robustness of morphogen gradients. Dev. Cell 5, 635–646 (2003)
Akiyama, S., Takahashi, S., Kimura, T., Ishimori, K., Morishima, I., Nishikawa, Y., Fujisawa, T.: Conformational landscape of cytochrome c folding studied by microsecond-resolved small-angle x-ray scattering. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 1329–1334 (2002)
Belenkaya, T.Y., Han, C., Yan, D., Opoka, R.J., Khodoun, M., Liu, H., Lin, X.: Drosophila Dpp morphogen movement is independent of dynamin-mediated endocytosis but regulated by the glypican members of heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Cell 119, 231–244 (2004)
Häcker, U., Nybakken, K., Perrimon, N.: Heparan sulphate proteoglycans: the sweet side of development. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 6, 530–541 (2005)
Kirkpatrick, C.A., Dimitroff, B.D., Rawson, J.M., Selleck, S.B.: Spatial regulation of wingless morphogen distribution and signaling by Dally-like protein. Dev. Cell 7, 513–523 (2004)
The, I., Bellaiche, Y., Perrimon, N.: Hedgehog movement is regulated through tout velu-dependent synthesis of a heparan sulfate proteoglycan. Mol. Cell 4, 633–639 (1999)
Yan, D., Lin, X.: Shaping morphogen gradients by proteoglycans. Cold Spring Harb Perspect. Biol. 1, a002493–a002493 (2009)
Kirkpatrick, C.A., Selleck, S.B.: Heparan sulfate proteoglycans at a glance. J. Cell Sci. 120, 1829–1832 (2007)
Lin, X.: Functions of heparan sulfate proteoglycans in cell signaling during development. Development 131, 6009–6021 (2004)
Matsuo, I., Kimura-Yoshida, C.: Extracellular distribution of diffusible growth factors controlled by heparan sulfate proteoglycans during mammalian embryogenesis. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B Biol. Sci. 369, 20130545 (2014)
Lander, A.D., Nie, Q., Wan, F.Y.M.: Membrane-associated non-receptors and morphogen gradients. Bull. Math. Biol. 69, 33–54 (2007)
Lei, J., Song, Y.: Mathematical model of the formation of morphogen gradients through membrane-associated non-receptors. Bull. Math. Biol. 72, 805–829 (2010)
Lei, J.: Mathematical model of the Dpp gradient formation in drosophila wing imaginal disc. Chinese Sci. Bull. 55, 984–991 (2010)
Lei, J., Wang, D., Song, Y., Nie, Q., Wan, F.Y.M.: Robustness of Morphogen gradients with "bucket brigade" transport through membrane-associated non-receptors. Discrete Contin. Dyn. Syst. B 18, 721–739 (2012)
Mizutani, C.M., Nie, Q., Wan, F.Y., Zhang, Y.-T., Vilmos, P., Sousa-Neves, R., Bier, E., Marsh, J.L., Lander, A.D.: Formation of the BMP activity gradient in the Drosophila embryo. Dev. Cell 8, 915–924 (2005)
Shimmi, O., Umulis, D., Othmer, H., Oconnor, M.: Facilitated transport of a Dpp/Scw heterodimer by Sog/Tsg leads to robust patterning of the blastoderm embryo. Cell 120, 873–886 (2005)
Zhang, Y.-T., Lander, A.D., Nie, Q.: Computational analysis of BMP gradients in dorsal-ventral patterning of the zebrafish embryo. J. Theor. Biol. 248, 579–589 (2007)
Bollenbach, T., Kruse, K., Pantazis, P., González-Gaitán, M., Jülicher, F.: Robust formation of morphogen gradients. Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 4 (2005)
Bollenbach, T., Kruse, K., Pantazis, P., González-Gaitán, M., Jülicher, F.: Morphogen transport in epithelia. Phys. Rev. E 75, 16 (2007)
Pfeiffer, S., Vincent, J.-P.: Signalling at a distance: transport of wingless in the embryonic epidermis of Drosophila. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 10, 303–309 (1999)
Kerszberg, M., Wolpert, L.: Mechanisms for positional signalling by morphogen transport: a theoretical study. J. Theor. Biol. 191, 103–114 (1998)
Zhou, S., Zhou, S.S., Lo, W.-C.W., Lo, W.-C., Suhalim, J.L.J., Suhalim, J.L., Digman, M.A.M., Digman, M.A., Gratton, E.E., Gratton, E., Nie, Q.Q., Nie, Q., Lander, A.D.A., Lander, A.D.: Free extracellular diffusion creates the Dpp morphogen gradient of the Drosophila wing disc. Curr. Biol. 22, 668–675 (2012)
Bergmann, S., Sandler, O., Sberro, H., Shnider, S., Schejter, E., Shilo, B.-Z., Barkai, N.: Pre-steady-state decoding of the bicoid morphogen gradient. PLoS Biol. 5, (2007)
Richards, D.M., Saunders, T.E.: Spatiotemporal analysis of different mechanisms for interpreting morphogen gradients. Biophy. J. 108, 2061–2073 (2015)
Wartlick, O., Mumcu, P., Jülicher, F., Gonaález-Gaitán, M.: Response to comment on dynamics of Dpp signaling and proliferation control. Science 335, 401 (2012)
McHale, P., Rappel, W.-J., Levine, H.: Embryonic pattern scaling achieved by oppositely directed morphogen gradients. Phys. Biol. 3, 107–120 (2006)
Morishita, Y., Iwasa, Y.: Optimal placement of multiple morphogen sources. Phys. Rev. E 77, (2008)
Eldar, A., Dorfman, R., Weiss, D., Ashe, H., Shilo, B.-Z., Barkai, N.: Robustness of the BMP morphogen gradient in Drosophila embryonic patterning. Nature 419, 304–8 (2002)
Shilo, B.-Z., Haskel-Ittah, M., Ben-Zvi, D., Schejter, E.D., Barkai, N.: Creating gradients by morphogen shuttling. Trends Genet. 29, 339–347 (2013)
Félix, M.-A., Barkoulas, M.: Pervasive robustness in biological systems. Nat. Rev. Genet. 16, 483–496 (2015)
Lander, A.D., Lo, W.-C., Nie, Q., Wan, F.Y.M.: The measure of success: constraints, objectives, and tradeoffs in morphogen-mediated patterning. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 1, a002022–a002022 (2009b)
Umulis, D., O’Connor, M.B., Othmer, H.G.: Robustness of embryonic spatial patterning in Drosophila melanogaster. Curr. Top Dev. Biol. 81, 65–111 (2008)
von Dassow, G., Meir, E., Munro, E.M., Odell, G.M.: The segment polarity network is a robust developmental module. Nature 406, 188–192 (2000)
von Dassow, G., Odell, G.M.: Design and constraints of theDrosophila segment polarity module: robust spatial patterning emerges from intertwined cell state switches. J. Exp. Zool. 294, 179–215 (2002)
Lander, A.D.: Morpheus unbound: reimagining the morphogen gradient. Cell 128, 245–256 (2007)
Lo, W.-C., Zhou, S., Wan, F.Y.M., Lander, A.D., Nie, Q.: Robust and precise morphogen-mediated patterning: trade-offs, constraints and mechanisms. J. R. Soc. Interf. 12, 20141041 (2015)
Morimura, S., Maves, L., Chen, Y., Hoffmann, F.M.: decapentaplegic overexpression affects Drosophila wing and leg imaginal disc development and wingless expression. Dev. Biol. 177, 136–151 (1996)
White, R., Nie, Q., Lander, A.D., Schilling, T.: Complex regulation of cyp26a1 creates a robust retinoic acid gradient in the zebrafish embryo. PLoS Biol. 5, (2007)
Emberly, E.: Optimizing the readout of morphogen gradients. Phys. Rev. E 77, (2008)
Houchmandzadeh, B., Wieschaus, E., Leibler, S.: Establishment of developmental precision and proportions in the early Drosophila embryo. Nature 415, 798–802 (2002)
Gregor, T., Tank, D.W., Wieschaus, E.F., Bialek, W.: Probing the limits to positional information. Cell 130, 153–164 (2007)
Tostevin, F., ten Wold, P.R., Howard, M.: Fundamental limits to position determination by concentration gradients. PLoS Comput. Biol. 3, (2007)
He, F., Ren, J., Wang, W., Ma, J.: Evaluating the Drosophila bicoid morphogen gradient system through dissecting the noise in transcriptional bursts. Bioinformatics 28, 970–975 (2012)
Holloway, D.M., Lopes, F.J.P., da Fontoura Costa, L., Travençolo, B.A.N., Golyandina, N., Usevich, K., Spirov, A.V.: Gene expression noise in spatial patterning: hunchback promoter structure affects noise amplitude and distribution in Drosophila segmentation. PLoS Comput. Biol. 7, e1001069–e1001069 (2010)
Zhang, L., Radtke, K., Zheng, L., Cai, A.Q., Schilling, T.F., Nie, Q.: Noise drives sharpening of gene expression boundaries in the zebrafish hindbrain. Mol. Syst. Biol. 8, 613 (2012)
Reeves, G.T., Fraser, S.E.: Biological systems from an engineer’s point of view. PLoS Biol. 7, e21–e21 (2009)
Lopes, F.J.P., Vieira, F.M.C., Holloway, D.M., Bisch, P.M., Spirov, A.V.: Spatial bistability generates hunchback expression sharpness in the Drosophila embryo. PLoS Comput. Biol. 4, (2008)
Akiyama, T., Kamimura, K., Firkus, C., Takeo, S., Shimmi, O., Nakato, H.: Dally regulates Dpp morphogen gradient formation by stabilizing Dpp on the cell surface. Dev. Biol. 313, 408–419 (2008)
Kushner, T., Simonyan, A., Wan, F.Y.M.: A new approach to feedback for robust signaling gradients. Studies Appl. Math. 133, 18–51 (2014)
Simonyan, A., Wan, F.Y.: Transient feedback and robust signaling gradients. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Model. 13, 179–204 (2016)
Buchmann, A., Alber, M., Zartman, J.J.: Sizing it up: the mechanical feedback hypothesis of organ growth regulation. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 35, 73–81 (2014)
Day, S.J., Lawrence, P., a.: Measuring dimensions: the regulation of size and shape. Development 127, 2977–2987 (2000)
Schwank, G., Basler, K.: Regulation of organ growth by morphogen gradients. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 2, (2010)
Lawrence, P.A., Morata, G.: The early development of mesothoracic compartments in Drosophila. An analysis of cell lineage and fate mapping and an assessment of methods. Dev. Biol. 56, 40–51 (1977)
Martin, F.A., Morata, G.: Compartments and the control of growth in the Drosophila wing imaginal disc. Development 133, 4421–4426 (2006)
Averbukh, I., Ben-Zvi, D., Mishra, S., Barkai, N.: Scaling morphogen gradients during tissue growth by a cell division rule. Development 141, 2150–2156 (2014)
Wartlick, O., Mumcu, P., Kicheva, A., Bittig, T., Seum, C., Jülicher, F., González-Gaitán, M.: Dynamics of Dpp signaling and proliferation control. Science 331, 1154–1159 (2011b)
Rogulja, D., Irvine, K.D.: Regulation of cell proliferation by a morphogen gradient. Cell 123, 449–461 (2005)
Aegerter-Wilmsen, T., Aegerter, C.M., Hafen, E., Basler, K.: Model for the regulation of size in the wing imaginal disc of Drosophila. Mech. Dev. 124, 318–326 (2007)
Aegerter-Wilmsen, T., Heimlicher, M.B., Smith, a. C., de Reuille, P. B., Smith, R. S., Aegerter, C. M. and Basler, K.: Integrating force-sensing and signaling pathways in a model for the regulation of wing imaginal disc size. J. Cell Sci. 125, 3221–31 (2012)
Shraiman, B.I.: Mechanical feedback as a possible regulator of tissue growth. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102, 3318–23 (2005)
Gregor, T., Bialek, W., de Ruyter van Steveninck, R.R., Tank, D.W., Wieschaus, E.F.: Diffusion and scaling during early embryonic pattern formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102, 18403–18407 (2005)
Lauschke, V.M., Tsiairis, C.D., Francois, P., Aulehla, A.: Scaling of embryonic patterning based on phase-gradient encoding. Nature 493, 101–105 (2013)
Umulis, D.M., Shimmi, O., O’Connor, M.B., Othmer, H.G.: Organism-scale modeling of early Drosophila patterning via bone morphogenetic proteins. Dev. Cell 18, 260–274 (2010)
Umulis, D.M., Othmer, H.G.: Mechanisms of scaling in pattern formation. Development 140, 4830–43 (2013)
Othmer, H.G., Pate, E.: Scale-invariance in reaction-diffusion models of spatial pattern formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77, 4180–4184 (1980)
Crampin, E.J., Gaffney, E., a. and Maini, P. K., : Reaction and diffusion on growing domains: scenarios for robust pattern formation. Bull. Math. Biol. 61, 1093–1120 (1999)
Fried, P., Iber, D.: Dynamic scaling of morphogen gradients on growing domains. Nat. Commun. 5, 5077–77 (2013)
Freeman, M.: Morphogen gradients, in theory. Dev. Cell 2, 689–690 (2002)
Shvartsman, S.Y., Baker, R.E.: Mathematical models of morphogen gradients and their effects on gene expression. Dev. Biol. 1, 715–730 (2012)
Buttitta, L., a., Edgar, B. a.: How size is controlled: from Hippos to Yorkies. Nat. Cell Biol. 9, 1225–1227 (2007)
Cho, E., Irvine, K.D.: Action of fat, four-jointed, dachsous and dachs in distal-to-proximal wing signaling. Development 131, 4489–4500 (2004)
Thompson, B.J., Cohen, S.M.: The Hippo pathway regulates the bantam microRNA to control cell proliferation and apoptosis in Drosophila. Cell 126, 767–774 (2006)
Hardway, H., Mukhopadhyay, B., Burke, T., Hichman, T.J., Forman, R.: Modeling the precision and robustness of hunchback border during drosophila embryonic development. J. Theor. Biol. 254, 390–9 (2008)
Umulis, D.M., Othmer, H.G.: The importance of geometry in mathematical models of developing systems. Curr. Opinion Genet. Dev. 22, 547–52 (2012)
Arias, A.M., Hayward, P.: Filtering transcriptional noise during development: concepts and mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Genet. 7, 34–44 (2005)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lei, J. (2021). Mathematical Models of Morphogen Gradients and Growth Control. In: Systems Biology. Lecture Notes on Mathematical Modelling in the Life Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73033-8_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73033-8_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-73032-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-73033-8
eBook Packages: Mathematics and StatisticsMathematics and Statistics (R0)