Abstract
Vaccine development is a complex and long process. It involves several steps, including computational studies, experimental analyses, animal model system studies, and clinical trials. This process can be accelerated by using in silico antigen screening to identify potential vaccine candidates. In this chapter, we describe a deep learning-based technique which utilizes 18 biological and 9154 physicochemical properties of proteins for finding potential vaccine candidates. Using this technique, a new web-based system, named Vaxi-DL, was developed which helped in finding new vaccine candidates from bacteria, protozoa, viruses, and fungi. Vaxi-DL is available at: https://vac.kamalrawal.in/vaxidl/.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Apostolopoulos V (2010) New generation vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 9(6):551–553
Hotez P (2021) Preventing the next pandemic and tackling antiscience: an interview with Peter Hotez. Future Microbiol 16(8):539–541
WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Available online: https://covid19.who.int. Accessed on 2 Jan 2023
Pronker ES, Weenen TC, Commandeur H, Claassen EH, Osterhaus AD (2013) Risk in vaccine research and development quantified. PLoS One 8(3):e57755
IFPMA (2019) The complex journey of a vaccine. Retrieved 15th Sept, 2022, from https://www.ifpma.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/IFPMA-ComplexJourney-2019_FINAL.pdf
Bernstein A, Pulendran B, Rappuoli R (2011) Systems vaccinomics: the road ahead for vaccinology. OMICS 15(9):529–531
Rawal K, Sinha R, Abbasi BA, Chaudhary A, Nath SK, Kumari P, Preeti P, Saraf D, Singh S, Mishra K, Gupta P, Mishra A, Sharma T, Gupta S, Singh P, Sood S, Subramani P, Dubey AK, Strych U, Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME (2021) Identification of vaccine targets in pathogens and design of a vaccine using computational approaches. Sci Rep 11(1):17626
Abbasi BA, Saraf D, Sharma T, Sinha R, Singh S, Sood S, Gupta P, Gupta A, Mishra K, Kumari P, Rawal K (2022) Identification of vaccine targets & design of vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus using computational and deep learning-based approaches. PeerJ 10:e13380
Rappuoli R, Hanon E (2018) Sustainable vaccine development: a vaccine manufacturer’s perspective. Curr Opin Immunol 53:111–118
Dalsass M, Brozzi A, Medini D, Rappuoli R (2019) Comparison of open-source reverse vaccinology programs for bacterial vaccine antigen discovery. Front Immunol 10:113
Doytchinova IA, Flower DR (2007) VaxiJen: a server for prediction of protective antigens, tumour antigens and subunit vaccines. BMC Bioinf 8:4
Pizza M, Scarlato V, Masignani V, Giuliani MM, Arico B, Comanducci M, Jennings GT, Baldi L, Bartolini E, Capecchi B, Galeotti CL, Luzzi E, Manetti R, Marchetti E, Mora M, Nuti S, Ratti G, Santini L, Savino S, Scarselli M, Storni E, Zuo P, Broeker M, Hundt E, Knapp B, Blair E, Mason T, Tettelin H, Hood DW, Jeffries AC, Saunders NJ, Granoff DM, Venter JC, Moxon ER, Grandi G, Rappuoli R (2000) Identification of vaccine candidates against serogroup B meningococcus by whole-genome sequencing. Science 287(5459):1816–1820
Heinson AI, Gunawardana Y, Moesker B, Hume CC, Vataga E, Hall Y, Stylianou E, McShane H, Williams A, Niranjan M, Woelk CH (2017) Enhancing the biological relevance of machine learning classifiers for reverse vaccinology. Int J Mol Sci 18(2):312
Bowman BN, McAdam PR, Vivona S, Zhang JX, Luong T, Belew RK, Sahota H, Guiney D, Valafar F, Fierer J, Woelk CH (2011) Improving reverse vaccinology with a machine learning approach. Vaccine 29(45):8156–8164
Magnan CN, Zeller M, Kayala MA, Vigil A, Randall A, Felgner PL, Baldi P (2010) High-throughput prediction of protein antigenicity using protein microarray data. Bioinformatics 26(23):2936–2943
Goodswen SJ, Kennedy PJ, Ellis JT (2013) A novel strategy for classifying the output from an in silico vaccine discovery pipeline for eukaryotic pathogens using machine learning algorithms. BMC Bioinf 14:315
Jaiswal V, Chanumolu SK, Gupta A, Chauhan RS, Rout C (2013) Jenner-predict server: prediction of protein vaccine candidates (PVCs) in bacteria based on host-pathogen interactions. BMC Bioinf 14:211
Ong E, Wang H, Wong MU, Seetharaman M, Valdez N, He Y (2020) Vaxign-ML: supervised machine learning reverse vaccinology model for improved prediction of bacterial protective antigens. Bioinformatics 36(10):3185–3191
Rawal K, Sinha R, Nath SK, Preeti P, Kumari P, Gupta S, Sharma T, Strych U, Hotez P, Bottazzi ME (2022) Vaxi-DL: a web-based deep learning server to identify potential vaccine candidates. Comput Biol Med 145:105401
Yang B, Sayers S, Xiang Z, He Y (2011) Protegen: a web-based protective antigen database and analysis system. Nucleic Acids Res 39(Database issue):D1073–D1078
UniProt C (2021) UniProt: the universal protein knowledgebase in 2021. Nucleic Acids Res 49(D1):D480–D489
Chen Q, Zobel J, Zhang X, Verspoor K (2016) Supervised learning for detection of duplicates in genomic sequence databases. PLoS One 11(8):e0159644
Xiao N, Cao DS, Zhu MF, Xu QS (2015) protr/ProtrWeb: R package and web server for generating various numerical representation schemes of protein sequences. Bioinformatics 31(11):1857–1859
Kawashima S, Ogata H, Kanehisa M (1999) AAindex: amino acid index database. Nucleic Acids Res 27(1):368–369
Kawashima S, Kanehisa M (2000) AAindex: amino acid index database. Nucleic Acids Res 28(1):374
Kawashima S, Pokarowski P, Pokarowska M, Kolinski A, Katayama T, Kanehisa M (2008) AAindex: amino acid index database, progress report 2008. Nucleic Acids Res 36(Database issue):D202–D205
Dubchak I, Muchnik I, Mayor C, Dralyuk I, Kim SH (1999) Recognition of a protein fold in the context of the Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) classification. Proteins 35(4):401–407
Dubchak I, Muchnik I, Holbrook SR, Kim SH (1995) Prediction of protein folding class using global description of amino acid sequence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92(19):8700–8704
Shen J, Zhang J, Luo X, Zhu W, Yu K, Chen K, Li Y, Jiang H (2007) Predicting protein-protein interactions based only on sequences information. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(11):4337–4341
Chou KC (2000) Prediction of protein subcellular locations by incorporating quasi-sequence-order effect. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 278(2):477–483
Chou KC (2001) Prediction of protein cellular attributes using pseudo-amino acid composition. Proteins 43(3):246–255
Rifaioglu AS, Atas H, Martin MJ, Cetin-Atalay R, Atalay V, Dogan T (2019) Recent applications of deep learning and machine intelligence on in silico drug discovery: methods, tools and databases. Brief Bioinform 20(5):1878–1912
Ismail H, White C, Al-Barakati H, Newman RH, Kc DB (2022) FEPS: a tool for feature extraction from protein sequence. Methods Mol Biol 2499:65–104
Bonidia RP, Domingues DS, Sanches DS, de Carvalho A (2022) MathFeature: feature extraction package for DNA, RNA and protein sequences based on mathematical descriptors. Brief Bioinform 23(1):bbab434
Muhammod R, Ahmed S, Md Farid D, Shatabda S, Sharma A, Dehzangi A (2019) PyFeat: a Python-based effective feature generation tool for DNA, RNA and protein sequences. Bioinformatics 35(19):3831–3833
Chen Z, Liu X, Zhao P, Li C, Wang Y, Li F, Akutsu T, Bain C, Gasser RB, Li J, Yang Z, Gao X, Kurgan L, Song J (2022) iFeatureOmega: an integrative platform for engineering, visualization and analysis of features from molecular sequences, structural and ligand data sets. Nucleic Acids Res 50(W1):W434–W447
Wu S, Liang MP, Altman RB (2008) The SeqFEATURE library of 3D functional site models: comparison to existing methods and applications to protein function annotation. Genome Biol 9(1):R8
Mu Z, Yu T, Liu X, Zheng H, Wei L, Liu J (2021) FEGS: a novel feature extraction model for protein sequences and its applications. BMC Bioinf 22(1):297
Mu Z, Yu T, Qi E, Liu J, Li G (2019) DCGR: feature extractions from protein sequences based on CGR via remodeling multiple information. BMC Bioinf 20(1):351
Pedregosa F, Varoquaux G, Gramfort A, Michel V, Thirion B, Grisel O, Blondel M, Prettenhofer P, Weiss R, Dubourg V, Vanderplas J, Passos A, Cournapeau D, Brucher M, Perrot M, Duchesnay E (2011) Scikit-learn: machine learning in Python. J Mach Learn Res 12:2825–2830
Van Rijn JN, Hutter F (2018) Hyperparameter importance across datasets. In: Proceedings of the 24th ACM SIGKDD international conference on knowledge discovery & data mining, pp 2367–2376
Kingma DP, Ba J (2014) Adam: a method for stochastic optimization. arXiv preprint arXiv 1412.6980
Qi Xu MZ, Zonghua G, Pan G (2019) Overfitting remedy by sparsifying regularization on fully-connected layers of CNNs. Neurocomputing 328:69–74
Ioffe S, Szegedy C (2015) Batch normalization: accelerating deep network training by reducing internal covariate shift. Proceedings of the 32nd international conference on machine learning. B. Francis and B. David. Proc Mach Learn Res: PMLR 37:448–456
Zhang Z, Sabuncu M (2018) Generalized cross entropy loss for training deep neural networks with noisy labels. In: Bengio S, Wallach H, Larochelle H, Grauman K, Cesa-Bianchi N, Garnett R (eds) Advances in neural information processing systems, vol 31. Curran Associates, Inc
Prechelt L (1998) In: Orr GB, Müller K-R (eds) “Early stopping – but when?” neural networks: tricks of the trade. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 55–69
Gardy JL, Spencer C, Wang K, Ester M, Tusnady GE, Simon I, Hua S, deFays K, Lambert C, Nakai K, Brinkman FS (2003) PSORT-B: improving protein subcellular localization prediction for Gram-negative bacteria. Nucleic Acids Res 31(13):3613–3617
Chaudhuri R, Ansari FA, Raghunandanan MV, Ramachandran S (2011) FungalRV: adhesin prediction and immunoinformatics portal for human fungal pathogens. BMC Genomics 12:192
Petersen TN, Brunak S, von Heijne G, Nielsen H (2011) SignalP 4.0: discriminating signal peptides from transmembrane regions. Nat Methods 8(10):785–786
Nielsen M, Lundegaard C, Lund O, Kesmir C (2005) The role of the proteasome in generating cytotoxic T-cell epitopes: insights obtained from improved predictions of proteasomal cleavage. Immunogenetics 57(1–2):33–41
Hofmann KAWS (1993) TMbase-A database of membrane spanning proteins segments. Biol Chem Hoppe Seyler 374:166
Wilkins MR, Gasteiger E, Bairoch A, Sanchez JC, Williams KL, Appel RD, Hochstrasser DF (1999) Protein identification and analysis tools in the ExPASy server. Methods Mol Biol 112:531–552
Larsen MV, Lundegaard C, Lamberth K, Buus S, Lund O, Nielsen M (2007) Large-scale validation of methods for cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitope prediction. BMC Bioinf 8:424
Andreatta M, Nielsen M (2016) Gapped sequence alignment using artificial neural networks: application to the MHC class I system. Bioinformatics 32(4):511–517
Emanuelsson O, Nielsen H, Brunak S, von Heijne G (2000) Predicting subcellular localization of proteins based on their N-terminal amino acid sequence. J Mol Biol 300(4):1005–1016
Altschul SF, Gish W, Miller W, Myers EW, Lipman DJ (1990) Basic local alignment search tool. J Mol Biol 215(3):403–410
Emanuelsson O, Nielsen H, von Heijne G (1999) ChloroP, a neural network-based method for predicting chloroplast transit peptides and their cleavage sites. Protein Sci 8(5):978–984
Acknowledgments
The computational facility used in this work was supported by Robert J. Kleberg Jr. and Helen C. Kleberg Foundation. We are also thankful to Amity University and ICMR [BMI/12(66)/2021 2021-6442] for the support provided during the conduct of this study. Preeti P has received financial support from SERB [File Number: CVD/2020/000842]. The computational facility used for hosting the server was provided by DBT, Government of India [BT/PR17252/BID/7/708/2016].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Preeti, P. et al. (2023). Vaxi-DL: An Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Platform for Vaccine Development. In: Reche, P.A. (eds) Computational Vaccine Design. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2673. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-3239-0_21
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-3239-0_21
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-0716-3238-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-0716-3239-0
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols