Abstract
A novel coronavirus named as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2019 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in the city of Wuhan, China, during December 2019. This virus spread quickly across the globe and posed Public Health Emergency, which was declared as a global pandemic during March 2020 by the World Health Organization (WHO). Until now, several characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 are not confirmed such as exact mode of transmission, animal origins, and antiviral therapeutics. However, it is now well known that this virus infects lungs, causes difficulties in breathing process, and affects taste and smell. The disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 is known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Despite all the investigations and strategies developed, it is deemed necessary that new protocols should be launched for the development and evaluation of vaccines and therapeutics. In this chapter, we discuss the spread and/or transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and the associated complications. Moreover, we summarize the therapeutic and prevention options and the most salient features of COVID-19.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Zumla A, Chan JFW, Azhar EI, Hui DSC, Yuen KY (2016) Coronaviruses-drug discovery and therapeutic options. Nat Rev Drug Discov 15:327–347. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd.2015.37
Cui J, Li F, Shi ZL (2019) Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 17:181–192. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9
Su S, Wong G, Shi W, Liu J, Lai ACK, Zhou J, Liu W, Bi Y, Gao GF (2016) Epidemiology, genetic recombination, and pathogenesis of coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol 24:490–502
Forni D, Cagliani R, Clerici M, Sironi M (2017) Molecular evolution of human coronavirus genomes. Trends Microbiol 25:35–48
Khan S, Siddique R, Shereen MA, Ali A, Liu J, Bai Q, Bashir N, Xue M (2020) The emergence of a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), their biology and therapeutic options. J Clin Microbiol 58:e00187–e00120. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00187-20
Khan S, Ali A, Siddique R, Nabi G (2020) Novel coronavirus is putting the whole world on alert. J Hosp Infect 104:252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.019
Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R (2020) COVID-19 infection: origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res 24:91–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005
Ji W, Wang W, Zhao X, Zai J, Li X (2020) Cross-species transmission of the newly identified coronavirus 2019-nCoV. J Med Virol 92:433–440. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25682
Chen Y, Liu Q, Guo D (2020) Coronaviruses: genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis. J Med Virol 92:418–423. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25681
Hui DS, I Azhar E, Madani TA, Ntoumi F, Kock R, Dar O, Ippolito G, Mchugh TD, Memish ZA, Drosten C, Zumla A, Petersen E (2020) The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health — the latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China. Int J Infect Dis 91:264–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009
Lin CY, Peng YC, Wu YH, Chang J, Chan CH, Yang DY (2007) The psychological effect of severe acute respiratory syndrome on emergency department staff. Emerg Med J 24:12–17. https://doi.org/10.1136/emj.2006.035089
Hijawi B, Abdallat M, Sayaydeh A, Alqasrawi S, Haddadin A, Jaarour N, El Sheikh S, Alsanouri T (2013) Novel coronavirus infections in Jordan, April 2012: epidemiological findings from a retrospective investigation. EMHJ 19(Supp 1):S12–S18
Bukhari EE, Temsah MH, Aleyadhy AA, Alrabiaa AA, Alhboob AA, Jamal AA, Binsaeed AA (2016) Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) outbreak perceptions of risk and stress evaluation in nurses. J Infect Dev Ctries 10:845–850. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.6925
Lee SM, Kang WS, Cho AR, Kim T, Park JK (2018) Psychological impact of the 2015 MERS outbreak on hospital workers and quarantined hemodialysis patients. Compr Psychiatry 87:123–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.10.003
Khan S, Siddique R, Li Z, Xue M, Liu J (2020) COVID-19 pandemic; prevention, treatment, and mental health. Hum Vaccin Immunother 16:2215–2216. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2020.1759976
Khan S, Nabi G, Han G, Siddique R, Lian S, Shi H, Bashir N, Ali A, Shereen MA (2020) Novel coronavirus: how the things are in Wuhan. Clin Microbiol Infect 26:399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.02.005
Khan S, Siddique R, Li H, Ali A, Adnan M, Bashir N, Xue M (2020) Impact of coronavirus outbreak on psychological health. J Glob Health 10:1–6. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.10.010331
Khan S, Liu J, Xue M (2020) Transmission of SARS-CoV-2, required developments in research and associated public health concerns. Front Med 7:1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2020.00310
Li YC, Bai WZ, Hashikawa T (2020) The neuroinvasive potential of SARS-CoV2 may be at least partially responsible for the respiratory failure of COVID-19 patients. J Med Virol 92:552–555. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25728
Baig AM, Khaleeq A, Ali U, Syeda H (2020) Evidence of the COVID-19 virus targeting the CNS: tissue distribution, host–virus interaction, and proposed neurotropic mechanisms. ACS Chem Nerosci 11:995. https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00122
Qian Z, Travanty EA, Oko L, Edeen K, Berglund A, Wang J, Ito Y, Holmes KV, Mason RJ (2013) Innate immune response of human alveolar type II cells infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 48:742–748. https://doi.org/10.1165/rcmb.2012-0339OC
Raj VS, Mou H, Smits SL, Dekkers DHW, Müller MA, Dijkman R, Muth D, Demmers JAA, Zaki A, Fouchier RAM, Thiel V, Drosten C, Rottier PJM, Osterhaus ADME, Bosch BJ, Haagmans BL (2013) Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 is a functional receptor for the emerging human coronavirus-EMC. Nature 495:251–254. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12005
Zhou P, Yang X-L, Wang X-G, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, Si H-R, Zhu Y, Li B, Huang C-L, Chen H-D, Chen J, Luo Y, Guo H, Jiang R-D, Liu M-Q, Chen Y, Shen X-R, Wang X, Zheng X-S, Zhao K, Chen Q-J, Deng F, Liu L-L, Yan B, Zhan F-X, Wang Y-Y, Xiao G-F, Shi Z-L (2020) A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 579:278. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7
Guan Y, Zheng BJ, He YQ, Liu XL, Zhuang ZX, Cheung CL, Luo SW, Li PH, Zhang LJ, Guan YJ (2003) Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China. Science 302:276–278
Alagaili AN, Briese T, Mishra N, Kapoor V, Sameroff SC, de Wit E, Munster VJ, Hensley LE, Zalmout IS, Kapoor A (2014) Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection in dromedary camels in Saudi Arabia. MBio 5:e00884–e00814
Provincial G, Health P, Hospital WJ, Hospital B (2020) Full genome NJ tree all CoV families Maximum likelihood tree of all outbreak sequences with orf1a region 2020-01-23 All outbreak sequences so far are very closely
Wu A, Peng Y, Huang B, Ding X, Wang X, Niu P, Meng J, Zhu Z, Zhang Z, Wang J, Sheng J, Quan L, Xia Z, Tan W (2020) Commentary genome composition and divergence of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) originating in China. Cell Host Microbe 27:325–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2020.02.001
Fu B, Xu X, Wei H (2020) Why tocilizumab could be an effective treatment for severe COVID-19? J Transl Med 18:164
Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen Y-M, Wang W, Song Z-G, Hu Y, Tao Z-W, Tian J-H, Pei Y-Y (2020) A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature 579:265–269
Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, Wang W, Song H, Huang B, Zhu N, Bi Y, Ma X, Zhan F, Wang L, Hu T, Zhou H, Hu Z, Zhou W, Zhao L, Chen J, Meng Y, Wang J, Lin Y, Yuan J, Xie Z, Ma J, Liu WJ, Wang D, Xu W, Holmes EC, Gao GF, Wu G, Chen W, Shi W, Tan W (2020) Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet 6736:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8
Cascella M, Rajnik M, Cuomo A, Dulebohn SC, Di Napoli R (2020) Features, evaluation and treatment coronavirus (COVID-19). StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL
Dong N, Yang X, Ye L, Chen K, Chan EW-C, Chen S (2020) Genomic and protein structure modelling analysis depicts the origin and pathogenicity of 2019-nCoV, a new coronavirus which caused a pneumonia outbreak in Wuhan, China. F1000Res 9:121
Boulant S, Stanifer M, Lozach P-Y (2015) Dynamics of virus-receptor interactions in virus binding, signaling, and endocytosis. Viruses 7:2794–2815. https://doi.org/10.3390/v7062747
White JM, Whittaker GR (2016) Fusion of enveloped viruses in endosomes. Traffic 17:593–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/tra.12389
Belouzard S, Chu VC, Whittaker GR (2009) Activation of the SARS coronavirus spike protein via sequential proteolytic cleavage at two distinct sites. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:5871–5876. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0809524106
Li F (2016) Structure, function, and evolution of coronavirus spike proteins. Annu Rev Virol 3:237–261. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-virology-110615-042301
Gui M, Song W, Zhou H, Xu J, Chen S, Xiang Y, Wang X (2017) Cryo-electron microscopy structures of the SARS-CoV spike glycoprotein reveal a prerequisite conformational state for receptor binding. Cell Res 27:119–129. https://doi.org/10.1038/cr.2016.152
Angeletti S, Benvenuto D, Bianchi M, Giovanetti M, Pascarella S, Ciccozzi M (2020) COVID-2019: the role of the nsp2 and nsp3 in its pathogenesis. J Med Virol 92:584
Lei J, Kusov Y, Hilgenfeld R (2018) Nsp3 of coronaviruses: structures and functions of a large multi-domain protein. Antiviral Res 149:58–74
Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, Niu P, Zhan F, Ma X, Wang D, Xu W, Wu G, Gao GF, Tan W, Team CNCI and R (2020) A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med 382:727–733. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001017
Sarris J, Kavanagh DJ (2009) Kava and St. John’s Wort: current evidence for use in mood and anxiety disorders. J Altern Complement Med 15:827–836
WHO (2020) Level R, Level G, High V (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). WHO, Geneva
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X (2020) Articles Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 395:497–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, Bretzel G, Froeschl G, Wallrauch C, Zimmer T, Thiel V, Janke C, Guggemos W, Seilmaier M, Drosten C, Vollmar P, Zwirglmaier K, Zange S, Wölfel R, Hoelscher M (2020) Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany. N Engl J Med 382:970. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmc2001468
Chan JFW, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KKW, Chu H, Yang J, Xing F, Liu J, Yip CCY, Poon RWS, Tsoi HW, Lo SKF, Chan KH, Poon VKM, Chan WM, Ip JD, Cai JP, Cheng VCC, Chen H, Hui CKM, Yuen KY (2020) A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 395:514–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30154-9
Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, Zhu F, Liu X, Zhang J, Wang B, Xiang H, Cheng Z, Xiong Y, Zhao Y, Li Y, Wang X, Peng Z (2020) Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 323:1061. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1585
Wang L (2020) C-reactive protein levels in the early stage of COVID-19. Med Mal Infect 50:332–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medmal.2020.03.007
Hawryluck L, Gold WL, Robinson S, Pogorski S, Galea S, Styra R (2004) SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis 10:1206–1212. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1007.030703
Khan S, Siddique R, Ali A, Xue M, Nabi G (2020) Novel coronavirus, poor quarantine, and the risk of pandemic. J Hosp Infect 104:449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.02.002
Xiang Y-T, Yang Y, Li W, Zhang L, Zhang Q, Cheung T, Ng CH (2020) Timely mental health care for the 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak is urgently needed. Lancet Psychiatry 0366:2019–2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30046-8
Chiang JJ, Cole SW, Bower JE, Irwin MR, Taylor SE, Arevalo J, Fuligni AJ (2019) Brain, behavior, and immunity depressive symptoms and immune transcriptional profiles in late adolescents. Brain Behav Immun 80:163–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2019.03.004
Liu S, Yang L, Zhang C, Xiang Y, Liu Z, Hu S, Zhang B (2020) Online mental health services in China during the COVID-19 outbreak. Lancet Psychiatry 7:e17–e18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30077-8
Yang Y, Li W, Zhang Q, Zhang L, Cheung T, Xiang Y (2020) Mental health services for older adults in China during the COVID-19. Lancet Psychiatry 7:e19. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30079-1
Liem A, Wang C, Wariyanti Y, Latkin CA, Hall BJ (2020) The neglected health of international migrant workers in the COVID-19. Lancet Psychiatry 7:e20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30076-6
Khan S, Nabi G, Yao L, Siddique R, Sajjad W, Kumar S, Duan P, Hou H (2018) Health risks associated with genetic alterations in internal clock system by external factors. Int J Biol Sci 14:791–798. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.23744
Zhou P, Fan H, Lan T, Yang X-L, Shi W-F, Zhang W, Zhu Y, Zhang Y-W, Xie Q-M, Mani S (2018) Fatal swine acute diarrhoea syndrome caused by an HKU2-related coronavirus of bat origin. Nature 556:255–258
Escobar-Viera CG, Whitfield DL, Wessel CB, Shensa A, Sidani JE, Brown AL, Chandler CJ, Hoffman BL, Marshal MP, Primack BA (2018) For better or for worse? A systematic review of the evidence on social media use and depression among lesbian, gay, and bisexual minorities. J Med Internet Res 20:1–14. https://doi.org/10.2196/10496
Ruzek JI, Eric Kuhn E, Jaworski BK, Owen JE, Ramsey KM (2016) Mobile mental health interventions following war and disaster. mHealth 2:37. https://doi.org/10.21037/mhealth.2016.08.06
Jones NM, Thompson RR, Schetter CD, Silver RC (2017) Distress and rumor exposure on social media during a campus lockdown. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114:11663–11668. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1708518114
Wu Z, McGoogan JM (2020) Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 323:1239. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.2648
Luo J, Rizvi H, Egger JV, Preeshagul IR, Wolchok JD, Hellmann MD (2020) Impact of PD-1 blockade on severity of COVID-19 in patients with lung cancers. Cancer Discov 10:1121. https://doi.org/10.1158/2159-8290.CD-20-0596
CDC (2020) People who are at higher risk for severe illness (older adults). https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/older-adults.html. Accessed 20 Apr 2020
Schwartz DA, Graham AL (2020) Potential maternal and infant outcomes from (Wuhan) coronavirus 2019-nCoV infecting pregnant women: lessons from SARS, MERS, and other human coronavirus infections. Viruses 12:1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12020194
Chen H, Guo J, Wang C, Luo F, Yu X, Zhang W, Li J, Zhao D, Xu D, Gong Q, Liao J, Yang H, Hou W, Zhang Y (2020) Clinical characteristics and intrauterine vertical transmission potential of COVID-19 infection in nine pregnant women: a retrospective review of medical records. Lancet 6736:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30360-3
Khan S, Jun L, Nawsherwan SR, Li Y, Han G, Xue M, Nabi G, Liu J (2020) Association of COVID-19 infection with pregnancy outcomes in healthcare workers and general women. Clin Microbiol Infect 26:788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.03.034
Dong L, Tian J, He S, Zhu C, Wang J, Liu C, Yang J (2020) Possible vertical transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from an infected mother to her newborn. JAMA 323:1846–1848. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.4621
Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, Lofy KH, Wiesman J, Bruce H, Spitters C, Ericson K, Wilkerson S, Tural A, Diaz G, Cohn A, Fox L, Patel A, Gerber SI, Kim L, Tong S, Lu X, Lindstrom S, Pallansch MA, Weldon WC, Biggs HM, Uyeki TM, Pillai SK, Team WS 2019-nCoV CI (2020) First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med 382:929. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001191
Agostini ML, Andres EL, Sims AC, Graham RL, Sheahan TP, Lu X, Smith EC, Case JB, Feng JY, Jordan R, Ray AS, Cihlar T, Siegel D, Mackman RL, Clarke MO, Baric RS, Denison MR (2018) Coronavirus susceptibility to the antiviral remdesivir (GS-5734) is mediated by the viral polymerase and the proofreading exoribonuclease. MBio 9:e00221. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00221-18
Gao J, Tian Z, Yang X (2020) Breakthrough: chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Biosci Trends 14:72–73. https://doi.org/10.5582/bst.2020.01047
Ng CS, Kasumba DM, Fujita T, Luo H (2020) Spatio-temporal characterization of the antiviral activity of the XRN1-DCP1/2 aggregation against cytoplasmic RNA viruses to prevent cell death. Cell Death Differ 27:2363. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41418-020-0509-0
Gautret P, Lagier J-C, Parola P, Hoang VT, Meddeb L, Mailhe M, Doudier B, Courjon J, Giordanengo V, Vieira VE, Dupont HT, Honoré S, Colson P, Chabrière E, La Scola B, Rolain J-M, Brouqui P, Raoult D (2020) Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents 56:105949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949
Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, Shi Z, Hu Z, Zhong W, Xiao G (2020) Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res 30:269. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0
Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, Schäfer A, Won J, Brown AJ, Montgomery SA, Hogg A, Babusis D, Clarke MO, Spahn JE, Bauer L, Sellers S, Porter D, Feng JY, Cihlar T, Jordan R, Denison MR, Baric RS (2020) Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun 11:222. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13940-6
Chen C, Huang J, Cheng Z, Wu J, Chen S, Zhang Y, Chen B, Lu M, Luo Y, Zhang J, Yin P, Wang X (2020) Favipiravir versus Arbidol for COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. MedRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.17.20037432
Richardson P, Griffin I, Tucker C, Smith D, Oechsle O, Phelan A, Stebbing J (2020) Baricitinib as potential treatment for 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease. Lancet 395:e30–e31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30304-4
Lim J, Jeon S, Shin HY, Kim MJ, Seong YM, Lee WJ, Choe KW, Kang YM, Lee B, Park SJ (2020) Case of the index patient who caused tertiary transmission of COVID-19 infection in Korea: the application of lopinavir/ritonavir for the treatment of COVID-19 infected pneumonia monitored by quantitative RT-PCR. J Korean Med Sci 35:e79. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e79
Mitjà O, Clotet B (2020) Use of antiviral drugs to reduce COVID-19 transmission. Lancet Glob Health 8:e639
Shang L et al (2020) On the use of corticosteroids for 2019-nCoV pneumonia. Lancet 395:683–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30361-5
Chan JFW, Lau SKP, To KKW, Cheng VCC, Woo PCY, Yuen K-Y (2015) Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: another zoonotic betacoronavirus causing SARS-like disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 28:465–522
Khan S, Siddique R, Bai Q, Shabana LY, Xue M, Nabi G, Liu J (2020) Coronaviruses disease 2019 (COVID-19): causative agent, mental health concerns, and potential management options. J Infect Public Health. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2020.07.010
Khan S, Siddique R, Li Z, Xue M, Liu J, Nabi G (2020) COVID-19 pandemic; prevention, treatment, and mental health. Hum Vaccin Immunother 16:2215–2216. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2020.1759976
Wohlford-Lenane CL, Meyerholz DK, Perlman S, Zhou H, Tran D, Selsted ME, McCray PB (2009) Rhesus theta-defensin prevents death in a mouse model of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus pulmonary disease. J Virol 83:11385–11390
Wiley JA, Richert LE, Swain SD, Harmsen A, Barnard DL, Randall TD, Jutila M, Douglas T, Broomell C, Young M (2009) Inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue elicited by a protein cage nanoparticle enhances protection in mice against diverse respiratory viruses. PLoS One 4:e7142. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007142
Mubarak A, Alturaiki W, Hemida MG (2019) Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): infection, immunological response, and vaccine development. J Immunol Res 2019:6491738. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6491738
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Khan, S., Siddique, R., Bizhanova, A. (2021). Transmission, Medical Consequences, and Prevention/Treatment of COVID-19 Infection. In: Roy, K. (eds) In Silico Modeling of Drugs Against Coronaviruses. Methods in Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/7653_2020_57
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/7653_2020_57
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-0716-1365-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-0716-1366-5
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols