Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Self-Compassion and Trauma Processing Outcomes Among Victims of Violence

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
Mindfulness Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Self-compassion entails being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of psychological pain and holding painful thoughts and feelings in mindful awareness. Self-compassion has been associated with positive mental health outcomes and may have implications for post-traumatic processing. Sixty-three female trauma survivors completed measures of post-traumatic stress and self-compassion (baseline). One week later, they were randomly assigned to one of three processing conditions to undergo an induction: “analytic” (brooding, conceptualizing), “experiential” (self-reflective, mindful experiencing), or control. Following induction, participants completed a trauma-specific interview to discuss their trauma. Before induction (T1) and after the interview (T2), women completed measures of anxiety and affectivity. At baseline, greater self-compassion correlated with less post-traumatic stress symptoms. After the induction and trauma interview at T2, greater self-kindness and mindfulness correlated with less anxiety and negative affectivity in controls. In the analytic processing condition, greater self-kindness correlated with less negative affectivity, whereas mindfulness correlated with less anxiety and negative affectivity and greater positive affectivity at T2. In the experiential processing condition, greater self-kindness correlated with more anxiety and positive affectivity at T2 and greater common humanity correlated with more anxiety at T2. Results indicated that processing modes exert differential effects of self-compassion on trauma-related anxiety and affectivity. During conditions of experiential processing, self-kindness may allow for greater tolerance of anxiety. During conditions of analytic processing, mindfulness may decrease anxiety and negative affectivity by reducing the tendency to perseverate on negative internal experiences. Implications for research, theory, and practice are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andrews, B., Brewin, C. R., Rose, S., & Kirk, M. (2000). Predicting PTSD symptoms in victims of violent crime: the role of shame, anger, and childhood abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 69–73. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.109.1.69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2011). Self-compassion: conceptualizations, correlates, & interventions. Review of General Psychology, 15, 289–302. doi:10.1037/a0025754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Beck, J. S. (1993). Types of self-reported anxiety in outpatients with DSM-IIIR anxiety disorders. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 6, 43–55. doi:10.1080/10615809308249531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1991). Relationship between the Beck Anxiety Inventory and the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale with anxious outpatients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 5, 213–223. doi:10.1016/0887-6185(91)90002-B.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T., & Forneris, C. A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 669–673. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(96)00033-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., Kessler, R. C., Chilcoat, H. D., Schultz, L. R., Davis, G. C., & Andreski, P. (1998). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: The 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 626–632. Retrieved from http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/journal.aspx

  • Breslau, N., Peterson, E. L., Poisson, L. M., Schultz, L. R., & Lucia, V. C. (2004). Estimating post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: lifetime perspective and the impact of typical traumatic events. Psychological Medicine, 34, 889–898. doi:10.1017/S0033291703001612.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cahill, S. P., Rothbaum, B. O., Resick, P. A., & Follette, V. M. (2009). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adults. In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, M. J. Friedman, & J. A. Cohen (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD: practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (2nd ed., pp. 139–222). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C. M., Novaco, R. W., Hamada, R. S., Gross, D. M., & Smith, G. (1997). Anger regulation deficits in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 17–36. doi:10.1023/a:1024852228908

  • Davey, G. C. L., & Levy, S. (1998). Catastrophic worrying: personal inadequacy and a perseverative iterative style as features of the catastrophizing process. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 576–586. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.107.4.576.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DePrince, A. P., Zurbriggen, E. L., Chu, A. T., & Smart, L. (2010). Development of the trauma appraisal questionnaire. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19, 275–299. doi:10.1080/10926771003705072.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Endler, N. S., Cox, B. J., Parker, J. D. A., & Bagby, R. M. (1992). Self-reports of depression and state-trait anxiety: evidence for differential assessment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 832–838. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.5.832.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, S. (2003). Cognitive-experiential self-theory of personality. In T. Millon & M. J. Lerner (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychology, volume 5 personality and social psychology (pp. 159–184). Hoboken: Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness mediation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1045–1062. doi:10.1037/a0013262.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (1998). Structured clinical interview for DSM–IV Axis I disorders (patient ed). New York: Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., Massie, E. D., & Yarczower, M. (1995). The impact of fear activation and anger on the efficacy of exposure treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 26, 487–499. doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80096-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, P., Anders, S., Perera, S., Tennen, H., Park, K., Tomich, P., & Toshiro, T. (2009). Traumatic events among undergraduate students: prevalence and associated symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 450–460. doi:10.1037/a0016412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P. (2009). Introducing compassion-focused therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15, 199–208. doi:10.1192/apt.bp.107.005264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P., & Proctor, S. (2006). Compassionate mind training for people with high shame and self-criticism. A pilot study of a group therapy approach. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 13, 353–379. doi:10.1002/cpp.507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grey, N., Holmes, E., & Brewin, C. R. (2001). Peritraumatic emotional ‘hot spots’ in memory. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 29, 367–372. doi:10.1017/s1352465801003095.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hembree, E. A., Foa, E. B., Dorfan, N. M., Street, G. P., Kowalski, J., & Tu, X. (2003). Do patients drop out prematurely from exposure therapy for PTSD? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 555–562. doi:10.1023/B:JOTS.0000004078.93012.7d.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaycox, L. H., Foa, E. B., & Morral, A. R. (1998). Influence of emotional engagement and habituation on exposure therapy for PTSD. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 185–192. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.66.1.185.

  • Johnson, D. M., Zlotnick, C., & Perez, S. (2012). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of PTSD in residents of battered women shelters: Results of a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 542–551. doi:10.1037/a0023822.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go there you are: mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kearney, D. J., Malte, C. A., McManus, C., Martinez, M. E., Felleman, B., & Simpson, T. L. (2013). Loving-kindness meditation for posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 426–434. doi:10.1002/jts.21832.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kearney, D. J., McDermott, K., Malte, C., Martinez, M., & Simpson, T. L. (2012). Association of participation in a mindfulness program with measures of PTSD, depression and quality of life in a veteran sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68, 101–116. doi:10.1002/jclp.20853.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kearney, D. J., McManus, C. P., Malte, C. A., Martinez, M. E., Felleman, B., & Simpson, T. L. (2014). Loving-kindness mediation and the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions among veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Medical Care, 52, S32–S38. doi:10.1097/MLR.0000000000000221.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kimbrough, E., Magyari, T., Langenberg, P., Chesney, M., & Berman, B. (2010). Mindfulness intervention for child abuse survivors. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66, 17–33. Retrieved October 18, 2013 from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1097-4679

  • King, A. P., Erickson, T. M., Giardino, N. D., Favorite, T., Rauch, S. E., Robinson, E., & Liberson, I. (2013). A pilot study of group mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) for combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Depression and Anxiety, 30, 638–645. doi:10.1002/da.22104.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kubany, E. S., Leisen, M. B., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., Haynes, S. N., Owens, J. A., & Burns, K. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: the traumatic life events questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12, 210–224. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.12.2.210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Allen, A. B., & Hancock, J. (2007). Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: the implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 887–904. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacBeth, A., & Gumley, A. (2012). Exploring compassion: a meta-analysis of the association between self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 545–552. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223–250. doi:10.1080/15298860309027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K., Hsieh, Y., & Dejitterat, K. (2005). Self-compassion, achievement goals, and coping with academic failure. Self and Identity, 4, 263–287. doi:10.1080/13576500444000317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmieri, P. A., Weathers, F. W., Difede, J., & King, D. W. (2007). Confirmatory factor analysis of the PTSD Checklist and the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale in disaster workers exposed to the World Trade Center Ground Zero. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 329–341. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.2.329.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peirce, J. M., Burke, C. K., Stoller, K. B., Neufeld, K. J., & Brooner, R. K. (2009). Assessing traumatic event exposure: comparing the traumatic life events questionnaire to the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV. Psychological Assessment, 21, 210–218. doi:10.1037/a0015578.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Powers, M. B., Halpern, J. M., Ferenschak, M. P., Gillihan, S. J., & Foa, E. B. (2010). A meta-analytic review of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 635–641. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993). Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 984–991. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.61.6.984.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, M., & Brewin, C. R. (1998). Intrusive cognitions, coping strategies, and emotional responses in depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and a non-clinical population. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 135–147. doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00013-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, B. O., Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., Murdock, T., & Walsh, W. (1992). A prospective examination of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 455–475. doi:10.1002/jts.2490050309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: a new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarrier, N., & Humphreys, L. (2000). Subjective improvement in PTSD patients with treatment by imaginal exposure or cognitive therapy: Session by session changes. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39, 27–34. doi:10.1348/014466500163086.

  • Taylor, S., Thordarson, D. S., Maxfield, L., Fedoroff, I. C., Lovell, K., & Ogrodniczuk, J. (2001). Comparative efficacy, speed, and adverse effects of three PTSD treatments: exposure therapy, EMDR, and relaxation training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 330–338. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.71.2.330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B. L., & Waltz, J. (2008). Self-compassion and PTSD symptom severity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 556–558. doi:10.1002/jts.20374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tolin, D. F., & Foa, E. B. (2006). Sex differences in trauma and posttramatic stress disorder: a quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 959–992. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.959.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, M. W., & Borkovec, T. D. (1992). A catastrophizing assessment of worrisome thoughts. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 505–520. doi:10.1007/bf01175138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, E., Moberly, N. J., & Moulds, M. L. (2008). Processing mode causally influences emotional reactivity: distinct effects of abstract versus concrete construal on emotional response. Emotion, 8, 364–378. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.3.364.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1999). Manual for the positive and negative affect schedule-expanded form. Iowa City: The University of Iowa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 219–235. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weathers, F., Litz, B., Huska, J., & Keane, T. (1994). PTSD checklist—civilian version. Boston: National Center for PTSD, Behavioral Science Division.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkins, K. C., Lang, A. J., & Norman, S. B. (2011). Synthesis of the psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL) military, civilian, and specific versions. Depression and Anxiety, 28, 596–606. doi:10.1002/da.20837.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

This research was funded in part by the Center for the Family of Violence and Sexual Assault at Northern Illinois University as part of a dissertation grant awarded to the first author.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of California, San Francisco, Trauma Recovery Center, 2727 Mariposa, Suite 100, San Francisco, CA, 94110, USA

    Christine E. Valdez

  2. Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA

    Christine E. Valdez & Michelle M. Lilly

Authors
  1. Christine E. Valdez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Michelle M. Lilly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christine E. Valdez.

Appendix

Appendix

Outline of Study Procedure

  1. 1.

    Pre-screen

    1. a)

      Assess exposure to interpersonal trauma and exclusionary criteria

  2. 2.

    Online questionnaires (baseline)

    1. a)

      Demographic questionnaire

    2. b)

      Self-compassion scale (Neff 2003)

    3. c)

      Trauma history (TLEQ; Kubany et al. 2000)

    4. d)

      PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (Weathers et al. 1994)

  3. 3.

    Lab session (T1 and T2)

    1. a)

      Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI; Beck et al. 1993)

    2. b)

      Negative affectivity (PANAS-X; Watson and Clark 1999)

    3. c)

      Processing mode induction (Watkins et al. 2008)

    4. d)

      Catastrophizing interview (CI; Davey and Levy 1998; Vasey and Borkovec 1992)

    5. e)

      Beck Anxiety Inventory

    6. f)

      Negative affectivity

    7. g)

      Induction of positive mood state story

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Valdez, C.E., Lilly, M.M. Self-Compassion and Trauma Processing Outcomes Among Victims of Violence. Mindfulness 7, 329–339 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0442-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0442-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation