Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Nitrogen retention and loss in unfertilized lawns across a light gradient

  • Published:
Urban Ecosystems Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A desirable function for terrestrial urban ecosystems is the mitigation of nitrogen (N) pollution associated with cities and suburbs. To assist in maximizing this function, identifying locations of sources and sinks of N in the urban environment is crucial to inform management strategies. Lawns are an extensive land cover in urbanized landscapes, and in general, they have demonstrated the capacity to function as a sink for N inputs. How N is cycled by lawns, however, is likely not uniform across the physical heterogeneity or management activities that exist in lawns. We investigated the influence of heterogeneity in light availability on N cycling in lawns that were irrigated but not fertilized. Light availability is affected by tree canopy and built structures and is, therefore, heterogeneous both within individual lawns and among lawns. Light is expected to control N retention and loss through effects on primary productivity. We experimentally examined N regulation over one calendar year by measuring net primary production (NPP), N retention using an isotopic tracer, and N leaching in existing unfertilized lawns under heterogeneous light conditions. We used a budgetary approach to estimate gaseous N loss which we assume is primarily via denitrification. Light functioned as a limiting resource for primary productivity. From low to high light conditions, annual NPP increased 177 to 430 g C∙m−2∙y−1 and retention of N isotope tracer increased from 50 to 65% as a result of increased retention in plants. Nitrate leaching losses were low overall and were not affected by light levels. Light availability regulated the fate of N inputs and unfertilized lawns may function as substantial sinks for reactive N through storage in the terrestrial system and N loss by denitrification. However, whether or not denitrification is generally an N sink will depend on the ratio of non-reactive (i.e., N2) to reactive (i.e., N2O, NO) denitrification products. Overall, we find that effective strategies for managing N sources and sinks in cities will likely need to consider light availability, particularly in systems receiving water subsidies via irrigation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Al-Kofahi S, Steele C, VanLeeuwen D, St. Hilaire R (2012) Mapping land cover in urban residential landscapes using very high spatial resolution aerial photographs. Urban For Urban Green 11:291–301. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2012.05.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey LD (1976) Effects of temperature and root on denitrification in a soil. Can J Soil Sci 56:79–87. doi:10.4141/cjss76-012

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Battye W, Aneja VP, Roelle PA (2003) Evaluation and improvement of ammonia emissions inventories. Atmos Environ 37:3873–3883. doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00343-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bechtold JS, Edwards RT, Naiman RJ (2003) Biotic versus hydrologic control over seasonal nitrate leaching in a floodplain forest. Biogeochemistry 63:53–71

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bettez ND, Groffman PM (2013) Nitrogen deposition in and near an urban ecosystem. Environ Sci Technol 47:6047–6051. doi:10.1021/es400664b

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bijoor NS, Czimczik CI, Pataki DE, Billings SA (2008) Effects of temperature and fertilization on nitrogen cycling and community composition of an urban lawn. Glob Chang Biol 14:2119–2131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bormann FH, Balmori D, Geballe GT (2001) Redesigning the American Lawn: a search for environmental harmony, 2nd edn. Yale University Press, New Haven

  • Bowman DC, Paul JL, Davis WB, Nelson SH (1987) Reducing ammonia volatilization from Kentucky bluegrass turf by irrigation. Hortscience 22:84–87

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CFR: Code of Federal Regulations (1975) National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 40: 141. Fed Regist 59570

  • Colbourn P (1993) Limits to denitrification in two pasture soils in a temperate maritime climate. Agric Ecosyst Environ 43:49–68

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Collins KA, Lawrence TJ, Stander EK et al (2010) Opportunities and challenges for managing nitrogen in urban stormwater: a review and synthesis. Ecol Eng 36:1507–1519

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson EA, Savage KE, Bettez ND et al (2010) Nitrogen in runoff from residential roads in a coastal area. Water, Soil, air Pollut 210:3–13

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dubrovsky NM, Burow KR, Clark GM et al (2010) USGS circular 1350: nutrients in the nation’s streams and groundwater, 1992–2004. United States Geological Survey, Washington, DC

  • Falk JH (1976) Energetics of a suburban lawn ecosystem. Ecology 57:141–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fang C, Moncrieff JB (2005) The variation of soil microbial respiration with depth in relation to soil carbon composition. Plant Soil 268:243–253. doi:10.1007/s11104-004-0278-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frank KW, O'Reilly KM, Crum JR, Calhoun RN (2006) The fate of nitrogen applied to a mature Kentucky bluegrass turf. Crop Sci 46:209–215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freney JR, Simpson JR, Denmead OT (1983) Volatilization of ammonia. In: Freney JR, Simpson JR (eds) Gaseous loss of nitrogen from plant-soil systems. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp 1–32

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Galloway JN, Aber JD, Erisman JW et al (2003) The nitrogen Cascade. Bioscience 53:341. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0341:TNC]2.0.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golubiewski NE (2006) Urbanization increases grassland carbon pools: effects of landscaping in Colorado’s front range. Ecol Appl 16:555–571

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grimm NB, Faeth SH, Golubiewski NE et al (2008) Global change and the ecology of cities. Sci 319(80):756–760. doi:10.1126/science.1150195

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Groffman PM (2012) Terrestrial denitrification: challenges and opportunities. Ecol Process 1:11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groffman PM, Rice CW, Tiedje JM (1993) Denitrification in a tallgrass prairie landscape. Ecology 74:855–862

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groffman PM, Altabet MA, Bohlke JK et al (2006) Methods for measuring denitrification: diverse approaches to a difficult problem. Ecol Appl 16:2091–2122

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Groffman PM, Williams CO, Pouyat RV et al (2009) Nitrate leaching and nitrous oxide flux in urban forests and grasslands. J Environ Qual 38:1848–1860. doi:10.2134/jeq2008.0521

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guillard K, Kopp KL (2004) Nitrogen fertilizer form and associated nitrate leaching from cool-season lawn turf. J Environ Qual 33:1822–1827

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall SJ, Huber D, Grimm NB (2008) Soil N2O and NO emissions from an arid, urban ecosystem. J Geophys Res 113:G01016

    Google Scholar 

  • Horgan BP, Branham BE, Mulvaney RL (2002) Mass balance of 15N applied to Kentucky bluegrass including direct measurement of denitrification. Crop Sci 42:1595–1601

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaye JP, Burke IC, Mosier AR, Guerschman JP (2004) Methane and nitrous oxide fluxes from urban soils to the atmosphere. Ecol Appl 14:975–981. doi:10.1890/03-5115

  • Kjelgren R, Rupp L, Kilgren D (2000) Water conservation in urban landscapes. Hortscience 35:1037–1040

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieth HFH (1975) Primary production of the major vegetation units of the world. In: Lieth HFH, Whittaker RH (eds) Primary productivity of the biosphere. Ecological. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp 203–215

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lovett GM, Traynor MM, Pouyat RV et al (2000) Atmospheric deposition to oak forests along an urban-rural gradient. Environ Sci Technol 34:4294–4300

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mancino CF, Torello WA, Wehner DJ (1988) Denitrification losses from Kentucky bluegrass sod. Agron J 80:148–153

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez NG, Bettez ND, Groffman PM (2014) Sources of variation in home lawn soil nitrogen dynamics. J Environ Qual 43:2146–2151

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLauchlan KK, Craine JM, Nippert JB, Ocheltree TW (2014) Lack of eutrophication in a tallgrass prairie ecosystem over 27 years. Ecology 95:1225–1235

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milesi C, Running SW, Elvidge CD et al (2005) Mapping and modeling the biogeochemical cycling of turf grasses in the United States. Environ Manag 36:426–438. doi:10.1007/s00267-004-0316-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NCDC (2011) 1981–2010 climate Normals: Davis 2 WSW experimental farm. CA US, Ashville

    Google Scholar 

  • Petrovic AM (1990) The fate of nitrogenous fertilizers applied to turfgrass. J Environ Qual 19:1–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Polsky C, Grove JM, Knudson C et al (2014) Assessing the homogenization of urban land management with an application to US residential lawn care. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111:4432–4437. doi:10.1073/pnas.1323995111

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Porter KS (1980) An evaluation of sources of nitrogen as causes of ground-water contamination in Nassau County, Long Island. Ground Water 18:617–625

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pouyat RV, Yesilonis ID, Golubiewski NE (2009) A comparison of soil organic carbon stocks between residential turf grass and native soil. Urban Ecosyst 12:45–62. doi:10.1007/s11252-008-0059-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team (2014) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna. http://www.R-project.org/. Accessed 26 Feb 2016

  • Raciti SM, Groffman PM, Fahey TJ (2008) Nitrogen retention in urban lawns and forests. Ecol Appl 18:1615–1626

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raciti SM, Burgin AJ, Groffman PM et al (2011a) Denitrification in suburban lawn soils. J Environ Qual 40:1932–1940. doi:10.2134/jeq2011.0107

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raciti SM, Groffman PM, Jenkins JC et al (2011b) Nitrate production and availability in residential soils. Ecol Appl 21:2357–2366

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raciti SM, Groffman PM, Jenkins JC et al (2011c) Accumulation of carbon and nitrogen in residential soils with different land-use histories. Ecosystems 14:287–297. doi:10.1007/s10021-010-9409-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rather J (2009) With fertilizer laws, Suffolk is aiming for cleaner water. The New York Times, New York City. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/15/nyregion/long-island/15fertilizerli.html. Accessed 31 Mar 2015

  • Reisinger AJ, Groffman PM, Rosi-Marshall EJ (2016) Nitrogen cycling process rates across urban ecosystems. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 92(12):fiw198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sala OE, Parton WJ, Joyce LA, Lauenroth WK (1988) Primary production of the central grassland region of the United States. Ecology 69:40–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders RA, Stevens JC (1984) Urban forest of Dayton, Ohio: a preliminary assessment. Urban Ecol 8:91–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schimel DS, Parton WJ, Kittel TGF et al (1990) Grassland biogeochemistry: links to atmospheric processes. Clim Chang 17:13–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sexstone AJ, Parkin TB, Tiedje JM (1985) Temporal response of soil denitrification rates to rainfall and irrigation. Soil Sci Soc Am J 49:99–103

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shi W, Yao H, Bowman D (2006) Soil microbial biomass, activity and nitrogen transformations in a turfgrass chronosequence. Soil Biol Biochem 38:311–319. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.05.008

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Skarstad J (2013) University of California. Davis, Buildings and Land Use History Timelines

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinke K, Stier JC, Kussow WR, Thompson A (2007) Prairie and turf buffer strips for controlling runoff from paved surfaces. J Environ Qual 36:426–439

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tonnesen G, Wang Z, Omary M, Chien CJ (2007) Assessment of nitrogen deposition: modeling and habitat assessment. California Energy Commission, PIER Energy-Related Environmental Research

  • Townsend-Small A, Pataki DE, Czimczik CI, Tyler SC (2011) Nitrous oxide emissions and isotopic composition in urban and agricultural systems in southern California. J Geophys Res 116:G01013. doi:10.1029/2010JG001494

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unkovich MJ, Pate JS (2000) An appraisal of recent field measurements of symbiotic N2 fixation by annual legumes. F Crop Res 65:211–228

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek PM, Matson PA (1984) Mechanisms of nitrogen retention in forest ecosystems: a field experiment. Sci 225(80):51–52. doi:10.1126/science.225.4657.51

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang W, Haver D, Pataki DE (2014) Nitrogen budgets of urban lawns under three different management regimes in southern California. Biogeochemistry 121:127–148. doi:10.1007/s10533-013-9942-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wedin DA, Tilman D (1996) Influence of nitrogen loading and species composition on the carbon balance of grasslands. Sci 274(80):1720–1723

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wickham H (2009) ggplot2: elegant graphics for data analysis. Springer, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wyland LJ, Jackson LE (1993) Evaluating nitrate recovery by ion-exchange resin bags. Soil Sci Soc Am J 57:1208–1211

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Thanks to M. Lucas and the UC Davis Grounds Division for access to and sharing of the lawns in this study. Field and lab assistance was kindly provided by K. Liang, S. Claudio, and E. Soon. Previous versions of this manuscript were greatly improved by comments from P.M. Groffman and L.R. Oki. The research was supported by funding from the Graduate Group in Ecology, the Department of Plant Sciences at UC Davis, and a National Science Foundation CAREER grant to M.L.C. (DEB-0844778).

Author information

Author notes

  1. Dustin L. Herrmann

    Present address: Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Research Program, Oak Ridge, TN, USA

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Graduate Group in Ecology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA

    Dustin L. Herrmann

  2. Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA

    Mary L. Cadenasso

Authors
  1. Dustin L. Herrmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mary L. Cadenasso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dustin L. Herrmann.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Herrmann, D.L., Cadenasso, M.L. Nitrogen retention and loss in unfertilized lawns across a light gradient. Urban Ecosyst 20, 1319–1330 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0684-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0684-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation