Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Convergence of microclimate in residential landscapes across diverse cities in the United States

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Landscape Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Context

The urban heat island (UHI) is a well-documented pattern of warming in cities relative to rural areas. Most UHI research utilizes remote sensing methods at large scales, or climate sensors in single cities surrounded by standardized land cover. Relatively few studies have explored continental-scale climatic patterns within common urban microenvironments such as residential landscapes that may affect human comfort.

Objectives

We tested the urban homogenization hypothesis which states that structure and function in cities exhibit ecological “sameness” across diverse regions relative to the native ecosystems they replaced.

Methods

We deployed portable micrometeorological sensors to compare air temperature and humidity in residential yards and native landscapes across six U.S. cities that span a range of climates (Phoenix, AZ; Los Angeles, CA; Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN; Boston, MA; Baltimore, MD; and Miami, FL).

Results

Microclimate in residential ecosystems was more similar among cities than among native ecosystems, particularly during the calm morning hours. Maximum regional actual evapotranspiration (AET) was related to the morning residential microclimate effect. Residential yards in cities with maximum AET <50–65 cm/year (Phoenix and Los Angeles) were generally cooler and more humid than nearby native shrublands during summer mornings, while yards in cities above this threshold were generally warmer (Baltimore and Miami) and drier (Miami) than native forests. On average, temperature and absolute humidity were ~6 % less variable among residential ecosystems than among native ecosystems from diverse regions.

Conclusions

These data suggest that common residential land cover and structural characteristics lead to microclimatic convergence across diverse regions at the continental scale.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • APA (2000) Policy guide on planning for sustainability. Adopted by chapter delegate assembly, April 16, 2000; Ratified by Board of Directors, April 17, 2000. American Planning Association, New York, p 15

    Google Scholar 

  • Avolio ML, Pataki DE, Pincetl S, Gillespie TW, Jenerette GD, McCarthy HR (2015) Understanding preferences for tree attributes: the relative effects of socio-economic and local environmental factors. Urban Ecosyst 18:73–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bang C, Sabo JL, Faeth SH (2010) Reduced wind speed improves plant growth in a Desert city. PLoS One 5(6):e11061. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011061

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Barreca AI (2012) Climate change, humidity, and mortality in the United States. J Environ Econ Manag 63(1):19–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Błażejczyk K, Jendritzky G, Bröde P, Fiala D, Havenith G, Epstein Y, Psikuta A, Kampmann B (2013) An introduction to the universal thermal climate index (UTCI). Geogr Pol 86(1):5–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonan GB (2000) The microclimates of a suburban Colorado (USA) landscape and implications for planning and design. Landsc Urban Plan 49(3):97–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brazel AJ, Selover N, Vose R, Heisler G (2000) The tale of two climates: baltimore and Phoenix urban LTER sites. Clim Res 15:123–135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brazel A, Gober P, Lee SJ, Grossman-Clarke S, Zehnder J, Hedquist B, Comparri E (2007) Determinants of changes in the regional urban heat island in metropolitan Phoenix (Arizona, USA) between 1990 and 2004. Clim Res 33(2):171–182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bröde P, Krüger E, Rossi F, Fiala D (2012) Predicting urban outdoor thermal comfort by the universal thermal climate index UTCI: a case study in Southern Brazil. Int J Biometeorol 56(3):471–480

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Budyko MI (1974) Climate and life. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Buyantuyev A, Wu J (2009) Urbanization alters spatiotemporal patterns of ecosystem primary production: a case study of the Phoenix metropolitan region, USA. J Arid Environ 73:512–520

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cadenasso ML, Pickett STA, Schwarz K (2007) Spatial heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: reconceptualizing land cover and a framework for classification. Front Ecol Environ 5(2):80–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carey RO, Hochmuth GJ, Martinez CJ, Boyer TH, Dukes MD, Toor GS, Cisar JL (2013) Evaluating nutrient impacts in urban watersheds: Challenges and research opportunities. Environ Pollut 173:138–149. doi:10.1007/s10980-015-0297-y

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cengel YA, Ghajar AJ (2015) Heating and cooling of buildings, chapter 16. Heat and mass transfer: fundamentals and applications, 5th edn. McGraw-Hill, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng L, Xu Z, Wang D, Cai X (2011) Assessing interannual variability of evapotranspiration at the catchment scale using satellite-based evapotranspiration data sets. Water Resour Res 47(9):W09509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chow WTL, Brazel AJ (2012) Assessing xeriscaping as a sustainable heat island mitigation approach for a desert city. Build Environ 47:170–181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chow WTL, Brennan D, Brazel AJ (2012) Urban heat island research in Phoenix, Arizona: theoretical contributions and policy applications. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 93(4):517–530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury RR, Larson K, Grove M, Polsky C, Cook E, Onsted J, Ogden L (2011) A multi-scalar approach to theorizing socio-ecological dynamics of urban residential landscapes. Cities Environ 4(1):6

    Google Scholar 

  • ClimateCHIP (2015) Excel heat stress calculator. Climate CHIP, climatechip.org, New Zealand

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole L, Foster S (2001) From the ground up: Environmental racism & the rise of the environmental justice movement. New York University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook EM, Hall SJ, Larson KL (2012) Residential landscapes as social-ecological systems: a synthesis of multi-scalar interactions between people and their home environment. Urban Ecosyst 15(1):19–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cronon W (1991) Nature’s metropolis: Chicago and the Great West, 1848–1893. W. W. Norton and Company, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Curriero FC, Heiner KS, Samet JM, Zeger SL, Strug L, Patz JA (2002) Temperature and mortality in 11 cities of the eastern United States. Am J Epidemiol 155(1):80–87

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Declet-Barreto J, Brazel AJ, Martin CA, Chow WTL, Harlan SL (2013) Creating the park cool island in an inner-city neighborhood: heat mitigation strategy for Phoenix, AZ. Urban Ecosyst 16(3):617–635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dimoudi A, Nikolopoulou M (2003) Vegetation in the urban environment: microclimatic analysis and benefits. Energy Build 35(1):69–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao J, Sun Y, Lu Y, Li L (2014) Impact of ambient humidity on child health: a systematic review. PLoS One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112508

    Google Scholar 

  • Gobster PH (1994) The urban savanna: reuniting ecological preference and function. Restor Manag Notes 12:64–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimmond S (2007) Urbanization and global environmental change: local effects of urban warming. Geogr J 173(1):83–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groffman PM, Cavender-Bares J, Bettez ND, Grove JM, Hall SJ, Heffernan JB, Hobbie SE, Larson KL, Morse JL, Neill C, Nelson K, O'Neil-Dunne J, Ogden L, Pataki DE, Polsky C, Chowdhury RR, Steele MK (2014) Ecological homogenization of urban USA. Front Ecol Environ 12(1):74–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guhathakurta S, Gober P (2010) Residential land use, the urban heat island, and water use in Phoenix: a path analysis. J Plan Educ Res 30(1):40–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harlan SL, Brazel AJ, Prashad L, Stefanov WL, Larsen L (2006) Neighborhood microclimates and vulnerability to heat stress. Soc Sci Med 63(11):2847–2863

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann DL (1994) Global physical climatology. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Heffernan JB, Soranno PA, Angilletta MJ Jr, Buckley LB, Gruner DS, Keitt TH, Kellner JR, Kominoski JS, Rocha AV, Xiao J, Harms TK, Goring SJ, Koenig LE, McDowell WH, Powell H, Richardson AD, Stow CA, Vargas R, Weathers KC (2014) Macrosystems ecology: understanding ecological patterns and processes at continental scales. Front Ecol Environ 12(1):5–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Imhoff ML, Zhang P, Wolfe RE, Bounoua L (2010) Remote sensing of the urban heat island effect across biomes in the continental USA. Remote Sens Environ 114:504–513

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic V (2013) A historical review of urban climatology and the atmospheres of the industrialized world. Wiley Interdiscip Rev 4(6):539–553

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenerette GD, Harlan SL, Brazel A, Jones N, Larsen L, Stefanov WL (2007) Regional relationships between surface temperature, vegetation, and human settlement in a rapidly urbanizing ecosystem. Landscape Ecol 22(3):353–365

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenerette GD, Harlan SL, Stefanov WL, Martin CA (2011) Ecosystem services and urban heat riskscape moderation: water, green spaces, and social inequality in Phoenix, USA. Ecol Appl 21(7):2637–2651

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jenerette GD, Miller G, Buyantuev A, Pataki DE, Gillespie T, Pincetl S (2013) Urban vegetation and income segregation in drylands: a synthesis of seven metropolitan regions in the southwestern United States. Environ Res Lett 8(4):044001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jesdale BM, Morello-Frosch R, Cushing L (2013) The racial/ethnic distribution of heat risk-related land cover in relation to residential segregation. Environ Health Perspect 121(7):811–817

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jones J, Creed I, Hatcher K, Warren R, Adams M, Benson M, Boose E, Brown W, Campbell J, Covich A, Clow D, Dahm C, Elder K, Ford C, Grimm N, Henshaw D, Larson K, Miles E, Miles K, Sebestyen S, Spargo A, Stone A, Vose J, Williams M (2012) Ecosystem processes and human influences regulate streamflow response to climate change at long-term ecological research sites. Bioscience 62(4):390–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenward A, Yawitz D, Sanford T, Wang R (2014) Summer in the city: hot and getting hotter. Clim Cent, Princeton, pp 1–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Klepeis NE, Nelson WC, Ott WR, Robinson JP, Tsang AM, Switzer P, Behar JV, Hern SC, Engelmann WH (2001) The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): a resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. J Expon Anal Environ Epidemiol 11(3):231–252

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knapp S, Dinsmore L, Fissore C, Hobbie SE, Jakobsdottir I, Kattge J, King JY, Klotz S, McFadden JP, Cavender-Bares J (2012) Phylogenetic and functional characteristics of household yard floras and their changes along an urbanization gradient. Ecology 93(8):S83–S98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunstler JH (1993) Geography of nowhere: the rise and decline of America’s man-made landscape. Simon and Schuster, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Larson DW, Matthes U, Kelly PE, Lundholm JT, Gerrath JA (2004) The urban cliff revolution. Fitzhenry & Whiteside, Toronto

    Google Scholar 

  • Larson KL, Cook E, Strawhacker C, Hall SJ (2010) The influence of diverse values, ecological structure, and geographic context on residents’ multifaceted landscaping decisions. Hum Ecol 38(6):747–761

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larson KL, Nelson KC, Samples SR, Hall SJ, Bettez N, Cavender-Bares J, Groffman PM, Grove M, Heffernan JB, Hobbie SE, Learned J, Morse JL, Neill C, Ogden LA, O’Neil-Dunne J, Pataki DE, Polsky C, Chowdhury RR, Steele M, Trammell TLE (2015) Ecosystem services in managing residential landscapes: Priorities, value dimensions, and cross-regional patterns. Urban Ecosyst 1-19

  • Lin T-P, Matzarakis A, Hwang R-L (2010) Shading effect on long-term outdoor thermal comfort. Build Environ 45:213–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Litvak E, Bijoor N, Pataki D (2013) Adding trees to irrigated turfgrass lawns may be a water-saving measure in semi-arid environments. Ecohydrology 7(5):1314–1330

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowen AC, Steel J (2014) Roles of humidity and temperature in shaping Influenza seasonality. J Virol 88(14):7692–7695

    Article  PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lundholm JT (2006) Green roofs and facades: a habitat template approach. Urban Habitats 4(1):87–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundholm JT, Marlin A (2006) Habitat origins and microhabitat preferences of urban plant species. Urban Ecosyst 9:139–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mander P (2012) How to convert relative humidity to absolute humidity. https://carnotcycle.wordpress.com/2012/08/04/how-to-convert-relative-humidity-to-absolute-humidity/. Accessed Jan 2015

  • Marshall T, Ruddell BL (unpublished) Performance evaluation of a low-cost printable radiation shield

  • Martini NF, Nelson KC, Hobbie SE, Baker LC (2013) Why “Feed the Lawn”? Exploring the influence of residential turf grass fertilization in the Minneapolis-Saint Paul Metropolitan Area. Environ Behav. doi:10.1177/0013916513492418

    Google Scholar 

  • McKinney M (2006) Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol Conserv 127:247–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Middel A, Brazel AJ, Gober P, Myint SW, Chang H (2012) Land cover, climate, and the summer surface energy balance in Phoenix, AZ, and Portland, OR. Int J Climatol 32(13):2020–2032

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Middel A, Haeb K, Brazel AJ, Martin CA, Guhathakurta S (2014) Impact of urban form and design on mid-afternoon microclimate in Phoenix local climate zones. Landsc Urban Plan 122:16–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell BC, Chakraborty J (2014) Urban heat and climate justice: a landscape of thermal inequity in Pinellas County, Florida. Geogr Rev 104(4):459–480

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NOAA National Weather Service (2015) Glossary. www.nws.noaa.gov/glossary/. Accessed 7 Sept 2015

  • Nowak DJ, Greenfield EJ (2012) Tree and impervious cover change in U.S. cities. Urban For Urban Green 11:21–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oke TR (1982) The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Q J R Meteorol Soc 108(455):1–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Oke TR (1987) Boundary layer climates. Methuen Publishing, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Orians G (1986) An ecological and evolutionary approach to landscape aesthetics. In: Penning-Rowsell EC, Lowenthal D (eds) Landscape meanings and values. Allen and Unwin, London, pp 3–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Peng LLH, Jim CY (2013) Green-roof effects on neighborhood microclimate and human thermal sensation. Energies 6(2):598–618

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polsky C, Grove JM, Knudson C, Groffman PM, Bettez N, Cavender-Bares J, Hall SJ, Heffernan JB, Hobbie SE, Larson KL, Morse JL, Neill C, Nelson KC, Ogden LA, O'Neil-Dunne J, Pataki DE, Chowdhury RR, Steele MK (2014) Assessing the homogenization of urban land management with an application to us residential lawn care. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111(12):4432–4437

    Article  PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pouyat RV, Pataki DE, Belt KT, Groffman PM, Hom J, Band LE (2007) Effects of urban land-use change on biogeochemical cycles. Terrestrial ecosystems in a changing World. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, pp 45–58

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins P (2007) Lawn people: how grasses, weeds, and chemicals make us who we are. Temple University Press, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins P, Polderman A, Birkenholtz T (2001) Lawns and toxins: an ecology of the city. Cities 18(6):369–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth M (2007) Review of urban climate research in (sub)tropical regions. Int J Climatol 27:1859–1873

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanford WE, Selnick DL (2013) Estimation of evapotranspiration across the conterminous United States using a regression with climate and land-cover data. J Am Water Resour Assoc 49(1):217–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaman J, Kohn M (2009) Absolute humidity modulates influenza survival, transmission, and seasonality. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106(9):3243–3248

    Article  PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spronken-Smith R, Oke T, Lowry W (2000) Advection and the surface energy balance across an irrigated urban park. Int J Climatol 20:1033–1047

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • St. Hilaire R, VanLeeuwen DM, Torres P (2010) Landscape preferences and water conservation choices of residents in a high desert environment. HortTechnology 20(2):308–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Stathopoulos T, Wu H, Zacharias J (2004) Outdoor human comfort in an urban climate. Build Environ 39(3):297–305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steele MK, Heffernan JB, Bettez N, Cavender-Bares J, Groffman PM, Grove JM, Hall S, Hobbie SE, Larson K, Morse JL, Neill C, Nelson KC, O'Neil-Dunne J, Ogden L, Pataki DE, Polsky C, Chowdhury RR (2014) Convergent surface water distributions in us cities. Ecosystems 17(4):685–697

  • Stone B, Vargo J, Habeeb D (2012) Managing climate change in cities: will climate action plans work? Landsc Urban Plan 107(3):263–271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamerius JD, Shaman J, Alonso WJ, Bloom-Feshbach K, Uejio CK, Comrie A, Viboud C (2013) Environmental predictors of seasonal Influenza epidemics across temperate and tropical climates. PLoS Pathog. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003194

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • UN (2014) World urbanization prospects: The 2014 Revision. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United Nations

    Google Scholar 

  • Wendt KM, Coffin BA (1988) Natural vegetation of Minnesota at the time of the public land survey, 1847–1907. In: Winchell NH (ed) Program. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, pp 1–6

  • Wong KV, Chaudhry S (2012) Use of satellite images for observational and quantitative analysis of urban heat islands around the world. J Energy Res Technol 134(042101):1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu XM, Fan ZT, Ohman-Strickland P (2010) Time-location patterns of a population living in an air pollution hotspot. J Environ Public Health. doi:10.1155/2010/625461

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang X, Friedl MA, Schaaf CB, Strahler AH, Schneider A (2004) The footprint of urban climates on vegetation phenology. Geophys Res Lett. doi:10.1029/2004GL020137

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao L, Lee X, Smith RB, Oleson K (2014) Strong contributions of local background climate to urban heat islands. Nature 511(7508):216–219

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu P, Zhang Y (2008) Demand for urban forests in United States cities. Landsc Urban Plan 84(3–4):293–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to numerous technical staff, students, and volunteers who assisted with microclimate data collection, including Erin Barton, Matthew Camba, Emma Dixon, La’Shaye Ervin, Caitlin Holmes, Richard McHorney, Miguel Morgan, Joseph Rittenhouse, Anna Royar, Jehane Samaha, Sydney Schiffner, Julea Shaw, Anissa Vega, Elisabeth Ward, and Megan Wheeler. We also thank Darrel Jenerette for reviewing an earlier draft of this manuscript. This project was supported by several collaborative grants from the Macrosystems Biology Program at NSF (EF-1065548, 1065737, 1065740, 1065741, 1065772, 1065785, 1065831, 1241960, and 121238320), and by the Earth Systems Modeling program at NSF (EF-1049251). This work was also supported in part by the NSF Long-term Ecological Research Program in Baltimore (BES LTER, DEB-0423476), Phoenix (CAP LTER, BCS-1026865), Plum Island (PIE LTER Boston; OCE-1058747 and 1238212), Cedar Creek (CDR LTER, Minneapolis–St Paul; DEB-1234162), and Florida Coastal Everglades (FCE LTER, Miami; DBI-0620409).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA

    Sharon J. Hall & J. Learned

  2. Fulton Schools of Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA

    B. Ruddell

  3. Schools of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning and Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA

    K. L. Larson

  4. Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA

    J. Cavender-Bares & S. E. Hobbie

  5. Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY, 12545, USA

    N. Bettez & P. M. Groffman

  6. USDA Forest Service, Baltimore Field Station, Baltimore, MD, 21228, USA

    J. M. Grove

  7. Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA

    J. B. Heffernan

  8. Department of Environmental Science and Management, School of Environment, Portland State University, Portland, OR, 97207, USA

    J. L. Morse

  9. The Ecosystems Center, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA

    C. Neill

  10. Department of Forest Resources and Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA

    K. C. Nelson

  11. Spatial Analysis Lab, Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, 05405, USA

    J. P. M. O’Neil-Dunne

  12. Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755-3529, USA

    L. Ogden

  13. Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA

    D. E. Pataki

  14. Department of Biology, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H3A 0G4, Canada

    W. D. Pearse

  15. Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada

    W. D. Pearse

  16. Center for Environmental Studies, Florida Atlantic University, Davie, FL, 33314, USA

    C. Polsky

  17. Department of Geography, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405-7100, USA

    R. Roy Chowdhury

  18. Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA

    M. K. Steele

  19. Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 19716, USA

    T. L. E. Trammell

Authors
  1. Sharon J. Hall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. Learned
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. B. Ruddell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. K. L. Larson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. J. Cavender-Bares
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. N. Bettez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. P. M. Groffman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. J. M. Grove
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. J. B. Heffernan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. S. E. Hobbie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. J. L. Morse
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. C. Neill
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. K. C. Nelson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  14. J. P. M. O’Neil-Dunne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  15. L. Ogden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  16. D. E. Pataki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  17. W. D. Pearse
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  18. C. Polsky
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  19. R. Roy Chowdhury
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  20. M. K. Steele
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  21. T. L. E. Trammell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sharon J. Hall.

Additional information

Special issue: Macrosystems ecology: Novel methods and new understanding of multi-scale patterns and processes.

Guest Editors: S. Fei, Q. Guo, and K. Potter.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (PDF 12226 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hall, S.J., Learned, J., Ruddell, B. et al. Convergence of microclimate in residential landscapes across diverse cities in the United States. Landscape Ecol 31, 101–117 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-015-0297-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-015-0297-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation