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Biomarkers in Kidney Disease pp 1–14Cite as

Metabolomics and Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease

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Abstract

The kidneys are critical for the secretion of cytokines and hormones, the excretion of waste metabolites, and the homeostasis of electrolytes. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major epidemiologic problem and a risk factor for cardiovascular events and cerebrovascular accidents. At present, renal function is generally evaluated by measuring estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). However, this method has low sensitivity during the early stages of CKD. A new biomarker that can detect CKD during its early stages is eagerly awaited: mass spectrometry (MS), an effective technology for the discovery of biomarkers due to its high sensitivity to detect many compounds, seems to fit these conditions.

Metabolomics using mass spectrometry is a powerful strategy for profiling metabolites and can be used to effectively explore unknown compounds that change in abundance with respect to disease condition. Recently, many researchers have endeavored to apply metabolomics techniques to diagnose various diseases, including CKD. Some metabolites that can serve as biomarkers for CKD severity have been discovered, thanks to their efforts.

This chapter reviews metabolomics techniques and their potential to be applied to CKD diagnosis.

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Abbreviations

CE-MS:

Capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry

CKD:

Chronic kidney disease

CysC:

Cystatin C

DMSO:

Dimethyl sulfoxide

ESRD:

End-stage renal disease

FT-ICR-MS:

Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance-mass spectrometry

GC-MS:

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

GFR:

Glomerular filtration rate

HMDB:

Human metabolome database

KEGG:

Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes

LC-MS:

Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

MS/MS:

Tandem mass spectrometry

PLS:

Partial least squares

SFC-MS:

Supercritical fluid chromatography-mass spectrometry

TOC:

Total organic carbon

TOF-MS:

Time-of-flight-mass spectrometry

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Nutrition, Koshien University, 10-1, Momijigaoka, Takarazuka, Hyogo, Japan

    Toshihiro Kobayashi

Authors
  1. Toshihiro Kobayashi
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Toshihiro Kobayashi .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom

    Vinood B. Patel

Definitions

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

CKD is defined by the following two criteria. (1) Kidney damage confirmed by urine tests, imaging tests, and blood tests. Especially, albuminuria is a typical symptom. (2) Reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR) less than 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 over 3 months.

CKD is classified into six stages according to GFR (see table below) (Levey et al. 2011). Stage 1 and Stage 2 do not equate to CKD if kidney damage is not comorbid. Stage 5 is equivalent to end-stage renal disease.

GFR (mL/min/1.73 m2)

CKD stage

90>

1

60–89

2

45–59

3a

30–44

3b

15–29

4

15<

5

Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR)

Since direct measurements of GFR are invasive and time-consuming, GFR is typically estimated using blood creatinine, age, and gender. There are various formulas for calculating eGFR: the Cockcroft–Gault equation, the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study equation, the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) equation, the Japanese Society of Nephrology Chronic Kidney Disease Initiative (JSN-CKDI) equation, and so on. Because blood creatinine is proportional to the muscle mass, the formula used differs depending on the patient’s race and gender.

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Kobayashi, T. (2015). Metabolomics and Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease. In: Patel, V. (eds) Biomarkers in Kidney Disease. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7743-9_41-1

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7743-9_41-1

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  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-007-7743-9

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