Abstract
This chapter considers how the concept of “planning” in the 1950s led to the emergence of a dynamic and growing management consultancy industry, dominated by the “Big Four” firms which were all “British generation” consultancies. The postwar boom in interest in “planning” is shown to have ushered consultants into the public sector. But, through researching Harold Wilson’s own papers and correspondence, Wilson’s reforming zeal and suspicions of the civil service are highlighted as critical in the creation of a state market for consultancy. Though seldom noted, management consultants from AIC Limited undertook the majority of the influential Fulton Committee on the Civil Service review; and so the subsequent indelible impression the British generation left on the civil service is considered in this chapter. The role consultants played in advising departments on how to revive British industry during the challenging decade of the 1970s is also focused on.
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Notes
- 1.
O&M Bulletin 21, no. 4 (1966): 173–184.
- 2.
TNA: MAF 331/45, “Use of Management Consultants by Government Departments.” Memo from W.G. Boss, October 25, 1965.
- 3.
TNA: MAF 331/45. Memo from C.H.A. Duke, November 29, 1965.
- 4.
Brech, Thomson, and Wilson, Lyndall Urwick, 213.
- 5.
Niccolò Machiavelli, Bernard Crick, and Leslie J. Walker, The Discourses (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2003), 501.
- 6.
Cited in McKenna, World’s Newest Profession, 11.
- 7.
Francis Bacon, Essays, Civil and Moral (New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1909), XX, Of Counsel.
- 8.
McKenna, World’s Newest Profession, 11.
- 9.
Derek Matthews, Malcolm Anderson, and J. R. Edwards, The Priesthood of Industry: The Rise of the Professional Accountant in Business Management (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 121.
- 10.
For this data, see ukpublicspending.co.uk, Last accessed: August 27, 2015, http://www.ukpublicspending.co.uk/
- 11.
For a more general discussion on this see: Chris Otter, The Victorian Eye: A Political History of Light and Vision in Britain, 1800–1910 (Chicago, Ill.; London: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 12–14.
- 12.
See Jose Harris, William Beveridge: A Biography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 136–40; Peter Hennessy, Whitehall, Rev. ed. (London: Pimlico, 2001), 53–56; for more on the use of experts for the rationalisation schemes in the interwar years see J.H. Bamberg, “The Rationalization of the British Cotton Industry in the Interwar Years”, Textile History 19, no. 1 (1988): 83–102 and J.I. Greaves, “‘Visible Hands’ and the Rationalization of the British Cotton Industry, 1925–1932”, Textile History 31, no.1 (2000): 102–122. Intriguingly, in the interwar cotton rationalization schemes the government placed responsibility for the programme under the Bank of England. Facing increasing competition from Japanese and Indian trade, under Governor Norman Montagu the Bank put pressure on cotton factories to form horizontal mergers—the most famous being the creation of the Lancashire Cotton Corporation in 1929. Management consultants do not appear to have been used extensively in these interwar schemes, which have been the subject of considerable retrospective criticism.
- 13.
Keith Grieves, Sir Eric Geddes: Business and Government in War and Peace (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), ix–xi.
- 14.
See Table A1.
- 15.
Weatherburn, “Scientific Management”.
- 16.
Ferguson, The Rise of Management Consulting, 26–27.
- 17.
Nicholas J. Griffin, “Scientific Management in the Direction of Britain’s Military Labour Establishment During World War I,” Military Affairs 42 no. 4 (1978): 197–198.
- 18.
Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Harper, 1911).
- 19.
See Kevin Whitston, “The Reception of Scientific Management by British Engineers, 1890–1914” The Business History Review 71, no. 2 (Summer, 1997): 207–229.
- 20.
Charles S. Maier, “Between Taylorism and Technocracy,” Journal of Contemporary History 5, no. 2 (1970): 27.
- 21.
See Mauro F. Guillén, Models of Management: Work, Authority and Organization in a Comparative Perspective (University of Chicago Press, 1994), 264.
- 22.
Ferguson, The Rise of Management Consulting, 41.
- 23.
Ibid., 254; see Principles of Scientific Management.
- 24.
Ferguson, The Rise of Management Consulting, 14.
- 25.
Ibid., 75.
- 26.
Tisdall, Agents of Change, 23.
- 27.
Kipping, “American Management Consulting Companies in Western Europe,” The Business History Review 73, no. 2 (1999): 198.
- 28.
Tisdall, Agents of Change, 25.
- 29.
Ferguson, The Rise of Management Consulting, 44–54.
- 30.
For British resistance to Taylorism, see Aaron Lawrence Levine, Industrial Retardation in Britain, 1880–1914 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1967), 60–61; Laura Lee Downs, “Industrial Decline, Rationalisation and Equal Pay: The Bedaux Strike at Rover Automobile Company,” Social History 15, no. 1 (1990): 45–73; the rejection of the Bedaux system at Rover Co. in 1930 is described in Wayne Lewchuk, “Fordism and British Motor Car Employers, 1896–1932,” in Howard F. Gospel and Craig R. Littler eds., Managerial Strategies and Industrial Relations (London: Heinemann, 1983), 82–110; the adoption of the “B unit” system in Britain is described in Kipping, “American Management Consulting Companies,” 198.
- 31.
Number of plants taken from Peter Scott, Triumph of the South: A Regional Economic History of Early Twentieth Century Britain (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), 105.
- 32.
Tisdall, Agents of Change, 9.
- 33.
Ibid., 26.
- 34.
Ibid., 9; the BIM register is available at the Warwick Modern Records Centre, “British Institute of Management,” MSS. 200/F/T3/25/6.
- 35.
See, for instance, “Deployment of Cotton Workers,” The Times, April 1, 1948, 2.
- 36.
For more on this debate, see Jim Tomlinson, “Understanding Mr. Attlee: the Economic Policies of the Labour Government, 1945–51,” ReFresh 27 (1998): 1–4; Another fascinating case study on this is the work of Ian Mikardo, a Labour MP who in this period forwarded the concept of “radical productionism”—which sought to increase unions’ understanding of management in order to improve productive efficiency. For more on this see Nick Tiratsoo and Jim Tomlinson, Industrial Efficiency and State Intervention: Labour 1939–51 (London: LSE/Routledge, 1993), 124–25.
- 37.
See, for instance, Jim Tomlinson “Conservative Modernisation: Too little, too late?”, Contemporary British History 11, no. 3 (1997): 18–38.
- 38.
See TNA: CO 1022/314–316. “Reports on the reorganisation of Government administration in Singapore by Urwick, Orr & Partners”.
- 39.
TNA: AN174/1196. “Training programme in collaboration with Messrs. Urwick, Orr & Partners Limited and North Eastern Region.” Urwicks’ work demonstrates how consulting assignments were won in this period. In 1960, Urwicks undertook a free piece of consultancy work “to review the present training methods and to study personnel arrangements relating to traffic grades at station level” for the North Eastern Region of British Railways. The General Manager of the region, H.A. Short, thought the report “of a high order and ‘pulls no punches’” and forwarded it, with “pleasure” to A.R. Dunbar, Manpower Adviser at the British Transport Commission. On the basis of Short’s encouragement, Dunbar proceeded to hire Urwicks—this time for a fee—to improve the training quality and morale of staff across the North Eastern Region. See H.A. Short memo to A.R. Dunbar, “My dear Dunbar…” February 23, 1960.
- 40.
TNA: MH/427. Walker-Smith memo to Cunliffe, 13 May 1960.
- 41.
Ibid. Cunliffe to Walker-Smith, 19 May 1960.
- 42.
See TNA: MH/427; TNA: MH/428.
- 43.
Calculated by author from company annual returns in MCA: box 22.
- 44.
An abridged version of the report is available in O&M Bulletin 21, no. 4 (HM Treasury, 1966), 173–184.
- 45.
House of Commons debate, Government Departments (Organisation and Structure), May 17, 1962, vol 659 cc1512–1522.
- 46.
“Charles Bedaux Dead: Suicide While in Custody,” The Times, February 20, 1944. An American citizen, Bedaux was arrested on suspicion of assisting Nazi and Vichy officials; amongst various suspected offences, he was accused of passing sensitive American information to the Nazi regime from the files of the Bedaux Company in Amsterdam. He died from a large overdose of sleeping tablets.
- 47.
Based on data derived by the author from MCA archives. Figures for 1967 are based on company returns for annual revenues, MCA: box 23. Figures for 1974 are based on company returns found in MCA: box 22.
- 48.
Data derived by the author from MCA archives. Member firms were asked to give annual returns on their consultancy assignments, broken down by the Board of Trade’s Standard Industrial Classification system. Here, the classification “Public administration and defence” is used as a proxy for state bodies. MCA: box 23.
- 49.
Middleton, The British Economy since 1945: Engaging with the Debate, 88.
- 50.
MCA Annual Report, 1962.
- 51.
“Management Consultants Association,” Financial Times, March 23, 1962, 4; “Management Consultants Association: Contribution to Higher Productivity,” The Times, March 22, 1962, 20.
- 52.
MCA Annual Report, 1962.
- 53.
See Kipping, “American Management Consulting Companies”, 201–202.
- 54.
Although political and commercial expediency also played a part here. Charles Bedaux was effectively persona non grata by the late 1930s in Britain, as described in footnote 223. Further details are in Tisdall, Agents of Change, 8; and The Times, February 20, 1944.
- 55.
TNA: LAB 28/16/15, “Royal Commission on Trade Unions and Employers’ Association”, December 6, 1966.
- 56.
House of Commons debate, Public Bodies (United States Management Consultants), November 27, 1968, vol 774 cc 682–692; Eric Lubbock, Baron Avebury, correspondence with author between February 15 and February 27, 2011. See Appendix 1 for biography.
- 57.
Derived by author from company returns. MCA: box 23.
- 58.
Peter Mandler, The English National Character (London: Yale University Press, 2006), 215.
- 59.
Ibid., 214.
- 60.
Alan Booth, The management of technical change: automation in the UK and USA since 1950 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). Of course, even more has been written on how American culture was transported in this period. For Hollywood, jazz and finance, see Phillip Blom, Fracture: Life & Culture in the West, 1918–1938 (New York: Basic Books, 2015).
- 61.
See, for instance, Victoria De Grazia, Irresistible Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 2005).
- 62.
MCA Annual Report, 1962.
- 63.
“Army Idea Urged in Personnel Work; Continuous Training advised by Major Urwick,” New York Times, October 6, 1938.
- 64.
“Gain Seen in Japan for U.S. Food Sales,” New York Times, March 30, 1964.
- 65.
According to Patricia Tisdall in 1982, “consultants trace a dislike of full-blooded advertising to the reaction of the institute of Chartered Accounts (ICA) against the sales tactics used by George S. May, in 1961” which led to a High Court tribunal case against an employee of the firm “for acts or defaults discreditable to a member of the ICA…[through] offering services by advertising.” Agents of Change, 1, 64–65.
- 66.
MCA Annual Report, 1985.
- 67.
House of Commons (HoC) debate, Organisation and Methods Staff, June 29, 1962, vol 661 cc929.
- 68.
HoC debate, Debate on the Fourth Address, November 6, 1964, vol 701 cc555.
- 69.
HoC debate, Labour Relations (Negotiating Machinery), February 18, 1966, vol 724 cc321–322.
- 70.
From author analysis of Hansard coverage.
- 71.
HoC debate, Budget Resolutions and Economic Situation, March 17, 1969, vol 781 cc1372.
- 72.
“Mr Ennals scorns idea of “taxing sick” to save NHS,” The Times, January 25, 1977.
- 73.
Hamish Donaldson, correspondence with author between March 3, 2011 and April 4, 2011. See Appendix 1 for biography.
- 74.
MCA Annual Report, 1965.
- 75.
O’Hara, From Dreams to Disillusionment, 1. This is not to say that “planning” was not influential in earlier decades too, as has been shown for the 1930s in Britain in Daniel Ritschel, The Politics of Planning: The Debate on Economic Planning in Britain in the 1930s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), but it was in the 1960s that the concept became most influential.
- 76.
HoC debate, Mr Selwyn Lloyd’s Statement, July 25, 1961, vol 645, cc 220–221.
- 77.
Astrid Ringe and Neil Rollings, “Responding to relative economic decline: the creation of the National Economic Development Council,” Economic History Review 2, (2000): 332; O’Hara, From Dreams to Disillusionment, 1–2.
- 78.
Saint-Martin, Building the New Managerialist State, 72.
- 79.
Quoted in Andrew Blick, “Harold Wilson, Labour and the Machinery of Government”, in The Wilson Governments 1964–1970 Reconsidered, Glen O’Hara and Helen Parr eds. (London: Routledge, 2006), 43.
- 80.
MCA Annual Report, 1963; MCA Annual Report, 1964.
- 81.
MCA Annual Report, 1965.
- 82.
Figures for consultant numbers found by author in MCA: box 22.
- 83.
MCA Annual Report, 1965.
- 84.
Quoted in Blick, “Harold Wilson”, 54.
- 85.
George Cox, interview with author at Bull Hotel, Hertfordshire on March 2, 2011. See Appendix 1 for biography.
- 86.
Costs noted in “‘Neddy’ Plan to use management consultants,” Financial Times, March 31, 1964, 1; see TNA: FG 2/254 for the publication Investment in Machine Tools (London: HMSO, 1965), 1.
- 87.
For a description of NEDO, see Ringe and Rollings, “Responding to relative economic decline”, 332.
- 88.
TNA: FG 2/254. “George Brown note to Sir Peter Runge, Federation of British Industries,” March 29, 1965.
- 89.
See TNA: MH 137/427 and TNA: MH 137/428 for details of Ministry of Health assignments; The GPA report (Watford: GPA, 1964).
- 90.
TNA: MH 137/427-8.
- 91.
The Times, 12 May 1967, 27.
- 92.
George Cox, interview with author; John Garrett, Managing the Civil Service (London: Heinemann, 1980), 135. See Appendix 1 for biography.
- 93.
See Table A1.
- 94.
Figures from Ferguson, The Rise of Management Consulting, 189.
- 95.
Garrett, Managing the Civil Service, 135.
- 96.
Hennessy, Whitehall, 199.
- 97.
See in particular, O’Hara, Governing Postwar Britain, 28–52.
- 98.
See Davis, Prime Ministers and Whitehall 1960–74, 16; See TNA: CAB 128/35/51. “Conclusions of a Meeting of Cabinet,” September 21, 1961.
- 99.
Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (London: Harper Collins, 1992), 517.
- 100.
O’Hara and Parr, The Wilson Governments 1964–1970 Reconsidered, viii.
- 101.
Ibid., ix.
- 102.
Ibid., x.
- 103.
Andrew Blick, “Harold Wilson, Labour and the Machinery of Government,” in eds. O’Hara and Parr, The Wilson Governments, 79–98.
- 104.
Andrew S. Crines and Kevin Hickson, Harold Wilson: The Unprincipled Prime Minister? Reappraising Harold Wilson (London: Biteback, 2016), xxix.
- 105.
Gerald Kaufman, interview with author at House of Commons, March 8, 2011. See Appendix 1 for biography.
- 106.
Pimlott, Harold Wilson, 515–19.
- 107.
Ibid.
- 108.
Davis, Prime Ministers and Whitehall 1960–74, 37.
- 109.
See Bodleian Library, Oxford (hereafter BOD): Wilson papers, “March of the Whitehall economists”, box Wilson c. 769.
- 110.
See, for instance, O’Hara and Parr, The Wilson Governments 1964–1970 Reconsidered, ix-xii.
- 111.
BOD: Wilson papers. Box Wilson c.1594. Wilson memo to the Secretary of State for Wales entitled “The Machinery of Government,” December 6, 1967.
- 112.
Tisdall, Agents of Change, 36–37.
- 113.
Ibid.
- 114.
See, for instance, Edgerton, Warfare State, 108.
- 115.
See Davis, Prime Ministers and Whitehall 1960–74, 24.
- 116.
O’Hara and Parr, The Wilson Governments 1964–1970 Reconsidered, ix.
- 117.
See Davis, Prime Ministers and Whitehall 1960–74, 52.
- 118.
TNA: BA 1/60, Fulton Report Vol. 1, (London: HMSO, 1968) 2.
- 119.
Hennessy, Whitehall, 199.
- 120.
Fry, Reforming the Civil Service, 11.
- 121.
Ibid., 17–18.
- 122.
TNA: BA 1/2. “Minutes of the second meeting of the Fulton Committee.” 15 March 1966.
- 123.
The “outsiders” staffing the Plowden Committee all had previous government experience. By contrast, none of the consultants who staffed the Management Consultancy Group had any previous connections with the Civil Service or government. See Rodney Lowe, “Millstone or Milestone? The 1959–1961 Plowden Committee and its Impact on British Welfare Policy”, Historical Journal 40, no. 2 (1997): 471.
- 124.
Tony Benn, Out of the Wilderness: Diaries 1963–67 (London: Arrow, 1987), 410.
- 125.
O&M Bulletin 21, no. 4 (1966): 173–184; Fry, Reforming, 60.
- 126.
Quoted in Fry, Reforming the Civil Service, 60; also in TNA: BA 1/20. “Michael Simons report to Committee.”
- 127.
Ibid.
- 128.
TNA: BA 1/71. Memo by Michael Simons on “Committee on the Civil Service: Investigation using management consultants – note by Secretariat.” September 23, 1966.
- 129.
Quoted in Fry, Reforming the Civil Service, 60; original document available in TNA: BA 1/20.
- 130.
More on Hunt’s perceived obstructionism of the civil service ‘mandarins’ towards the Fulton Committee can be found in Lowe, Official History of the British Civil Service, 121–125.
- 131.
Described in Saint-Martin, Building the New Managerialist State, 207.
- 132.
TNA: BA 1/60, Fulton Report Vol 2 (London: HMSO, 1968), 100.
- 133.
TNA: BA 1/72, D.C. Lee memo to Mr. Wilding, “Fulton Committee – Management Consultants.” April 6, 1967.
- 134.
JGarrett, The Management of Government, 150.
- 135.
TNA: BA 1/60, Fulton Report Vol 2, 79; quoted in Hennessy, Whitehall, 195.
- 136.
Davis, Prime Ministers and Whitehall 1960–74, 60.
- 137.
TNA: BA 1/70. “Committee on the Civil Service. Sunningdale Conference – the nature and requirements of Civil Service work. Note by the Secretary.” Memo on Sunningdale Conference by Richard Wilding, Committee Secretary. June 15, 1966.
- 138.
TNA: BA 1/71. “Committee on the Civil Service. Management Consultancy Group – Interim Report.” May 7, 1967.
- 139.
TNA: BA 1/71. “Letter to the Permanent Secretaries” by Norman Hunt. August 1966.
- 140.
Fry, Reforming the Civil Service, 59.
- 141.
Ibid., 63.
- 142.
TNA: BA 1/72. “Fulton Committee – Management Consultants” by Michael Simons. December 19, 1966.
- 143.
TNA: BA 1/70. “Committee on the Civil Service. Proposals for participation by Associated Industrial Consultants Ltd.” August 5, 1966.
- 144.
Fry, Reforming the Civil Service, 65.
- 145.
Ibid., 65–66.
- 146.
TNA: BA1/71. Memo on MCG team composition by Michael Simons. September 23, 1966.
- 147.
Fry, Reforming, 66.
- 148.
Ibid., 68.
- 149.
Ibid., 70.
- 150.
Ibid., 63.
- 151.
Ibid.
- 152.
R. H. S. Crossman and Anthony Howard, The Crossman Diaries (London: Magnum Books, 1979), diary entry for 20 June 1968, 506.
- 153.
Described in Davis, Prime Ministers and Whitehall 1960–74, 64.
- 154.
TNA: MAF 331/45. “Treasury note on management consultants.” Sir Laurence Helsby to Sir John Winnifreth, October 15, 1965.
- 155.
Hennessy, Whitehall, 199.
- 156.
William Armstrong, “The Civil Service Departments and Its Tasks,” O&M Bulletin 25, no. 2 (1970), 63–79.
- 157.
Ibid, 79; Fulton Report Vol 1, 104.
- 158.
For more assignments see Table A1.
- 159.
Kipping and Saint-Martin have suggested that the CSD served as a bulwark to management consultancy usage as it also contained its own internal consultancy practice to be used across the civil service. However this seems to overstate the significance of the CSD in reducing consultancy use. There were nonetheless a substantial number of consultancy assignments in this period and the CSD also hired many consultants on a secondment basis within its own consultancy unit. Kipping and Saint-Martin, “Between Regulation, Promotion and Consumption”, 458; “The Civil Service Department and Its Tasks”, O&M Bulletin 25, no. 2 (May 1970): 63–79.
- 160.
Hennessy, Whitehall, 210–11.
- 161.
A Better Tomorrow. Available on: http://www.conservative-party.net/manifestos/1970/1970-conservative-manifesto.shtml, accessed May 14, 2011.
- 162.
See Davis, Prime Ministers and Whitehall 1960–74, 117.
- 163.
Ibid., 116.
- 164.
Hennessy, Whitehall, 210–11.
- 165.
Davis, Prime Ministers and Whitehall 1960–74, 88–89.
- 166.
Geoffrey K. Fry, Policy and Management in the British Civil Service (London: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1995), 25.
- 167.
See Appendix 1 for biography of Richard Meyjes.
- 168.
O&M Bulletin 23, no. 1 (Feb 1968).
- 169.
O&M Bulletin, 23, no. 1 (Feb 1968).
- 170.
O&M, Use of Management Consultants, 179.
- 171.
For Ross’ unpublished paper on his work see TNA: HO 213/1595. “Naturalisation history: including author’s notes for The History of Naturalisation by J.M. Ross.” From a Cabinet memo where J.M. Ross was secretary it is apparent he worked in the Home Office in 1939 too: TNA: CAB 52/7, “Defence Regulations Sub-Committee.”
- 172.
Quoted in ibid., 174.
- 173.
Quoted in Tisdall, Agents of Change, 51.
- 174.
George Cox, interview with author.
- 175.
M.R. Gershon, “Working with a Management Consultant,” O&M Bulletin 21, no. 2 (1966), 64–68; George Cox, interview with author.
- 176.
Edgerton, Warfare State, 190.
- 177.
Gershon, “Working with a Management Consultant,” 68.
- 178.
See “Expert to reshape gaol industries,” The Times, June 4, 1965, 8.
- 179.
Vic Forrington, correspondence with author between March 3, 2011 and March 30, 2011. See Appendix 1 for biography.
- 180.
George Cox, interview with author, March 2, 2011.
- 181.
The archival material available certainly supports Forrington’s recollection that there was initial reticence in adopting Urwicks’ proposals. The consultant report concluded: “in our discussions we have been made aware of the major problems that will inevitably arise as part of implementation of the proposals…[however] we consider that despite the strategic and special significance of the subject, many of the improvements needed to ensuring meeting the future requirements of the Services and Sales can be achieved.” Unfortunately, the archives shed no further light on whether these recommendations were fully implemented as the consultants envisaged. TNA: DEFE 68/8, Urwick, Orr & Partners Ltd., “Ammunition Production Organisation Study,” March 2, 1970.
- 182.
TNA: LAB 28/16/25. “Evidence to Royal Commission” Association,” 15.
- 183.
TNA: LAB 10/2759. Ministry of Labour note, December 1, 1965; TNA: LAB 10/2759. “The use of management consultants by smaller firms.” February 1966.
- 184.
TNA: T 224/2045. Board of Trade memo on “Industrial Efficiency and the Consultancy Grants Scheme.” July 22, 1969.
- 185.
BOD: Wilson. c. 1594, Wilson memo to Secretary of State for Scotland, November 6, 1967.
- 186.
House of Commons debate, Public Bodies (United States Management Consultants), November 27, 1968, vol 774 cc682–692.
- 187.
TNA: T 224/2045. Note on “Consultancy Grants Scheme”, July 1969.
- 188.
Ibid.
- 189.
A Better Tomorrow, http://www.conservative-party.net/manifestos/1970/1970-conservative-manifesto.shtml, accessed April 11, 2011.
- 190.
Manchester People’s History Museum (hereafter MPHM): Labour Research Department Memoranda, RE 163. “A state management consultancy service.” Memo by John Garrett, May 1975.
- 191.
TNA: CAB 129/199/13. “White Paper on the Nationalised Industries,” 1978.
- 192.
TNA: CAB 128/63/18. “Kirby Manufacturing and Engineering Company.” May 11, 1978.
- 193.
Bernard Donoughue, Prime Minister: The Conduct of Policy under Harold Wilson and James Callaghan (London: Cape, 1987), 82.
- 194.
Tony Benn, Conflicts of Interest: Diaries 1977–1980 (London: Hutchinson, 1990), diary entry for May 11, 1978, 300.
- 195.
Antony Richard Malise Graham, correspondence with author between February 15 and February 20, 2011.
- 196.
Figures derived and analysed by the author from MCA: box 23.
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Weiss, A.E. (2019). Planning, 1960s–1970s. In: Management Consultancy and the British State. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99876-3_2
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