Abstract
In 1969 Godard, Armand Marco and Jean-Pierre Gorin (the Dziga Vertov Group) visited Palestinian training and refugee camps to make a film sponsored by the Palestinian Liberation Organization. Drawing a genealogy of Western intellectuals’ engagement with Third World struggles, I posit anxiety of blindness and the fear of blind naïve identification as the key issues Godard grappled with as he completed the film as Ici et ailleurs in 1974 in collaboration with Anne-Marie Miéville. In order to sustain this claim, I compare Ici et ailleurs to Michelangelo Antonioni’s The Passenger (1974) and Chung Kuo Cina (1976). Antonioni was asking many of the same questions as was Godard in this regard: Is it possible to go beyond the ideological veil imposed by the framework of the official visit? How is it possible to account for one’s position as an external observer? Finally, both Godard and Antonioni tackled the problem of “objectivity” in relationship to objectivity and the circulation of images of conflict “elsewhere” in the mass media.
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Notes
- 1.
Rossana Rossanda, “Les Intellectuels Révolutionnaires et l’Union Soviétique,” Les Temps Modernes no. 332 (March 1974), p. 1523.
- 2.
Bertolt Brecht, Kraft und Schwäche der Utopie, Gesammelte Werke vol. VIII (Frankfurt am Main: 1967), pp. 434–437.
- 3.
Jean-Paul Sartre and Henri Cartier -Bresson, D’une Chine à l’autre (Paris: Éditions Delpire, 1954).
- 4.
See Weil’s “Lettre à Bernanos,” “Journal d’Espagne,” and “Non-intervention generalisée,” in Écrits historiques et politiques (Paris: Gallimard, 1960).
- 5.
Which is not a documentary, but a reconstruction.
- 6.
Sylvain Dreyer, Image & Narrative, Vol. 11, No. 1 (2010).
- 7.
Hans-Magnus Enzensberger , “Tourists of the Revolution ,” p. 130. My italics.
- 8.
Deleuze , “Les Intercesseurs,” reprinted in Pourparlers (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1990), p. 130.
- 9.
Martin Heidegger, “The World Picture,” in The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), pp. 115–136.
- 10.
Unpublished material from an interview with Godard by Paula Jacques. The conference-interview was aired on June 22, 1976. Source: The archives at the Phonothèque at the Institut National de l’Audiovisuel, Paris. Date consulted: April 14, 2006. I would like to thank Mme. Amélie Briand-Le Jeune from the Phonothèque and Mme. Sylvie Fegar from the INA for granting me access to this material. For critical accounts of what I call the “mediatization of mediation” or the translation of the intellectual function to the mass media see: Régis Debray, Le pouvoir intellectuel en France (Paris: Ramsay, 1979) and Gilles Deleuze, “A propos des nouveaux philosophes et d’un problème plus général,” Deux Régimes de Fous (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 2003).
- 11.
‘‘Manifeste’’ (1970) reprinted in Jean-Luc Godard: Documents, edited by David Faroult (Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 2006) p. 138.
- 12.
Ibid., pp. 138–140.
- 13.
“We produce and consume our images with those of others,” and “A photographic image is a gaze upon another gaze that is presented to a third gaze, already represented by the camera’s lens.” Both are quotes from the voice-over of Ici et ailleurs .
- 14.
“To be two to see an image.” From Comment ça va?
- 15.
Daniel Fairfax, “Birth (of the Image) of a Nation: Jean-Luc Godard in Mozambique” Acta Univ. Sapientiae, Film and Media Studies 3 (2010), p. 58.
- 16.
“What kind of film do we make in Algeria? What kind of film do we make in Havana? We pretend to be struggling against Nixon-Paramount; but what’s it all about, really?”
- 17.
“It is necessary to be attentive and strong; we have no time to fear death; it is necessary to be attentive and strong.”
- 18.
Gorin’s partner at the time, a member of the DGV, and assistant director on several of Godard’s films prior to 1968.
- 19.
“You mentioned at the beginning the road that the history of revolutionary struggles has shown us; but where is it? In front of us, behind us, to the right, to the left, and how? So you have posed the question to Third World cinema, where is it?”
- 20.
“Sorry to bother you, comrade…your struggle—is it relevant to the class struggle?”
- 21.
“That way, there is an unknown cinema, a cinema of adventure.”
- 22.
“This way is the road to a cinema of the Third World, it is a very good cinema, a marvelous cinema, it is a cinema of oppression of consumption and imperialism, it is a dangerous cinema, a cinema of fascist repression, of terrorism, a dangerous cinema; dangerous and divine and marvelous cinema, it is a cinema that will construct everything: technique and production and distribution houses, the technicians […] it is a cinema for everyone […] of the Third World…”
- 23.
“At that moment, you sensed the complexity of the struggle, you felt that you lacked the means to analyze it, you came back to your concrete situation in Italy, France, Germany, Warsaw, Prague…and you saw that materialist cinema is useful beyond the Third World, in the fight against the bourgeois concept of representation.”
- 24.
Solanas and Getino also wrote the manifesto “Towards a Third Cinema: Notes and Experiences for the Development of a Cinema of Liberation in the Third World” (1969).
- 25.
The interview is unpublished and it was recorded by the Third World Cinema Group in Paris (from Berkeley, it seems) in 1969. David Faroult kindly forwarded me a digital copy.
- 26.
As Godard wrote in “Manifeste,” published in El Fatah (July 1970). Reprinted in Jean-Luc Godard: Documents, p. 138.
- 27.
For instance, Armand Deriaz’s book of photographs of refugees and fedayeen in relationship to the film Biladi, une Révolution, shot in Jordan in 1970, directed by Francis Reusser. The book, in which the photographs were accompanied by texts written by Palestinians, was published in Switzerland. There are also the photographs taken by Bruno Barbey for Magnum, one of them reprinted in a French journal analyzed by Godard and Miéville in Comment ça va ? Barbey’s images also illustrated a text by Jean Genet on the Palestinians in Zoom magazine in 1971.
- 28.
Interview with Michel Garin, “Godard chez les fedayeen,” L’Express, July 27–August 2, 1970, 44–45, reprinted in Jean-Luc Godard par Jean-Luc Godard, p. 165.
- 29.
Ibid.
- 30.
David Faroult insists that we take into account that with this text Godard and Gorin were seeking to reassure the financial support of Fatah; and that is why they proved publicly their support to Fatah. See Faroult’s “Du Vertovisme du Groupe Dziga Vertov,” in Jean-Luc Godard: Documents, p. 134.
- 31.
Godard and Gorin, Double Feature: Movies and Politics, p. 45.
- 32.
Dziga Vertov, Articles, journaux, projets (Paris: UGE ‘10/18’, 1972), 102–103. Cited by Faroult in “Du vertovisme du Groupe Dziga Vertov,” p. 135.
- 33.
Benjamin Buchloh, “From Faktura to Factography,” October No. 30 (Fall 1984), p. 107.
- 34.
Ibid., p. 114.
- 35.
Deleuze gives a nominal definition of “objective” image, which is when a thing (or a set of things) is seen by someone external to the set. Deleuze , Moving-Image Cinema 1, translated by Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), p. 71.
- 36.
Devin Foe, “Introduction,” October no. 118 (Fall 2006), pp. 3–5.
- 37.
Ibid., p. 8.
- 38.
See Gérard Chaliand, Voyage dans vingt ans de guérillas (Paris: L’Aube, 1988) pp. 110–115.
- 39.
Interview with Jean-Pierre Gorin by Christian Braad Thomsen, Jump Cut no. 3 (1974), pp. 17–19.
- 40.
In “Un entretien avec la réalisatrice: Il faut parler de ce que l’on connaît,” interview with Miéville by Danièle Heyman, Le Monde 18, January 1989.
- 41.
Masao Adachi, “The Testament that Godard has never Written”, in Nicole Brenez and Go Hirasawa (eds.) Le bus de la révolution passera bientôt près de chez toi, Editions Rouge Profond, Paris 2012, translated into English by Stoffel Debuysere, Mari Shields and available online: http://www.diagonalthoughts.com/?p=2067
- 42.
Deleuze , “Les Intercesseurs,” Pourparlers (Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit, 1990), p. 165.
- 43.
See Jean Daniel and André Burguière, Le Tiers monde et la gauche (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1979).
- 44.
Kristin Ross, May ’68 and its Afterlives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 11.
- 45.
Michael Scott Christofferson, French Intellectuals against the Left, p. 267.
- 46.
Christa Blümlinger called it “a radical farewell to militant filmmaking,” in “Procession and Projection: Notes on a Figure in the Work of Jean-Luc Godard,” For Ever Godard, edited by Michael Temple (London: Black Dog Publishing and Tate Modern, 2004), 182. For Raymond Bellour, it announces a radical break in Godard’s work as “the end of militant politics, the exportation of concepts and the credo that images cannot embody words and that images bear upon them the task of expressing a political truth , that is, the political (la politique) like truth .” Raymond Bellour, L’entre-images: photo, cinéma, vidéo (Paris: Éditions de la Différence, 1990), p. 117. For Serge Daney “nothing has protected him from the average illusions of his day (and when his films became more political, crafty though he was, he came up against the same naivety and dead-ends as any other ‘Maoist’ of the age).” Serge Daney, “The Godard Paradox,” For Ever Godard, p. 70.
- 47.
In the film we see the character of a “French worker ” flipping through Gérard de Villiers’ books. De Villiers’ books are sort of “proletarian pedagogical fictions” about conflicts in the Middle East and elsewhere, and they appear repeatedly in the film, as the fictive mode of the material existence of the Palestinian conflict in France.
- 48.
The practice of stratigraphy implies the uncovering of strata, and Deleuze-Foucault defines strata “as historical formations, positivities or empiricities. As ‘sedimentary beds’ they are made from things and words, from seeing and speaking, from bands of visibility and fields of readability, from contents and expressions.” Deleuze , Foucault, p. 47.
- 49.
In Deleuze’s sense of assujettissement.
- 50.
Michelangelo Antonioni, “Est-il encore possible de tourner un documentaire? Chung Kuo Cina, 1972” (1974), Écrits: Fare un film è per me vivere (Paris: Éditions Images Modernes, 2003), pp. 272–273. See Susan Sontag’s discussion of the film and its Chinese reception in On Photography. The film and her own experience in China became pivotal in her discussion on the difference between empirical knowledge and the knowledge offered by images.
- 51.
See Rimbaud’s letter of December 1887 to the Minister in which he demands permission to unload materials to fabricate rifles, cartridges and weapons of war in the Somali coast held by France, destined for King Ménélik of Choa. In I Promise to be Good: The Letters of Arthur Rimbaud, translated by Wyatt Mason (New York: The Modern Library, 2003), p. 292.
- 52.
Robertson: It’s so beautiful here… It’s the immobility – a kind of waiting, an eternal suspension.
- Locke::
-
You seem unusually poetic – for a businessman.
- Robertson::
-
Do I? Doesn’t the desert have the same effect on you?
- Locke::
-
I’m interested in men more than landscapes.
- Robertson::
-
But there are men who live in the desert […]
Mark Peploe, Peter Wollen and Michelangelo Antonioni, Michelangelo Antonioni’s “The Passenger”: The Complete Script (New York, Grove Press Inc., 1975), p. 27.
- 53.
Ibid., p. 64.
- 54.
Ibid., p. 69.
- 55.
Ibid., p. 75. My italics.
- 56.
“We never see the image of she who realizes the mise en scène.”
- 57.
Letter from April 12, 1979, first published in a special number in Cahiers, 1979, reprinted in JLG Documents, p. 289. Followed by Roussopoulos’ answer in 2005.
- 58.
Sonimage’s critique of photojournalism resonates with Susan Sontag’s own critique, articulated in On Photography from 1977. She takes up the issue in Regarding the Pain of Others in 2003, where she provides a short history of war photojournalism on pages 36–39.
- 59.
Godard from an interview in Le Monde, September 25, 1975, cited in Philippe Dubois, “Video Thinks what Cinema Creates: Notes on Jean-Luc Godard’s Work in Video and Television,” Jean-Luc Godard: Son + Image 1974–1991, edited by Raymond Bellour and Mary Lea Bandy (New York: MoMA, 1992), p. 170.
- 60.
Ibid.
- 61.
Raymond Bellour, L’Entre-images, p. 2.
- 62.
I am referencing here the linguist Oswald Ducrot, who argues that the talking subject introduces sentences (in enunciation) that necessarily contain the responsibility of the utterer; in other words, in enunciation the speaker is committed to the semantic content; that is why for Ducrot speech -acts constitute expression. Oswald Ducrot, Logique, structure, énonciation: Lectures sur le langage (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1989), and Les Mots du discours (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1980).
- 63.
Rimbaud , letter to Georges Izambard, Letters of Arthur Rimbaud, p. 28.
The translator wrote “encrapulation” for encrapuler (similar to débauchement, dérégler) which in French means to intoxicate oneself, to become filthy, vulgar, dishonest, to live in the excess of carnal pleasures. Baudelaire put it as: se délivrer à la crapule.
- 64.
“Very quickly, as they say, the contradictions explode and you with them // and I begin to see // and I begin to see // and I begin to see that I explode with them.”
- 65.
“A silence that is deadly because it is stifled.”
- 66.
See Derrida’s Of Grammatology, translated by G. Spivak (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
- 67.
“A single image is useless if it is not accompanied by a similar image in a different situation.” The letter is dated July 19, 1977, and published in Cahiers du Cinéma no. 300 (special issue, 1979), pp. 16–19.
- 68.
“Form-in-formation, how does it work from the entrance to the exit?”
- 69.
Nicole Brenez, “The Forms of the Question,” For Ever Godard, ed. Michael Temple, (London: Black Dog Publishing and Tate Modern, 2004), p. 165.
- 70.
“We break [the image] down more slowly, in order to provide a more consistent analysis [of what we are viewing].”
- 71.
“Show relationships, as opposed to truths.”
- 72.
Godard in his letter to Elias Sanbar, Cahiers du Cinéma no. 300 (Special issue 1979), pp. 16–19.
- 73.
Daniel Fairfax, “Birth (of the Image) of a Nation: Jean-Luc Godard in Mozambique” Acta Univ. Sapientiae, Film and Media Studies 3 (2010) pp. 55–67.
- 74.
As stated by Manthia Diawara, “Sonimage in Mozambique” (1999), in I Said I Love. That is the Promise: The TVideo Politics of Jean-Luc Godard, Gareth James and Florian Zeyfang eds. (Berlin: oe + b Books, 2003), p. 105.
- 75.
Cahiers du Cinéma no. 300 (1979), p. 73.
- 76.
“The voice of Mozambique. From which mouth does it issue? What is its face?” Ibid., p. 93.
- 77.
“To study the image, the desire of images (the wish to remember, the wish to show this memory, to make a mark of departure or arrival, a line of behavior, a moral/political guide toward one goal: Independence).” Ibid., p. 73.
- 78.
“An image of myself for the others, or an image of others for myself.” Ibid., p. 79.
- 79.
Richard Dienst, Still Life in Real Time: Theory after Television (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994), p. 34.
- 80.
“Take notice of what works, and compare it with what doesn’t”. Cahiers du Cinéma no. 300 (1979), p. 115.
- 81.
“Power of images. Abuse of power. Always to be two to look at an image, and to make a balance between the two. The image as proof. The image as justice, as the result of an agreement.” Cahiers du Cinéma no. 300 (1979), p. 125.
- 82.
For a brilliant and detailed analysis of the Sonimage project see Michael Witt’s doctoral dissertation for Bath University (1998): “On Communication: The Work of Anne-Marie Miéville and Jean-Luc Godard as ‘Sonimage’ from 1973 to 1979.”
- 83.
Godard in “Jean-Luc Godard fait le point,” interview with Philippe Durand published in Cinéma Pratique, 1973, p. 156.
- 84.
Philippe Dubois, “Video Thinks what Cinema Creates: Notes on Jean-Luc Godard’s Work in Video and Television,” Jean Luc Godard: Son + Image, 1974–1991, p. 173.
- 85.
Gilles Deleuze, “Lettre à Serge Daney: Optimisme, Pessimisme et Voyage,” first published in Serge Daney, Ciné-Jounal, preface, ed. Cahiers du Cinéma, reprinted in Pourparlers, p. 105.
- 86.
Fredric Jameson , “Video: Surrealism Without the Unconscious,” Postmodernism: Or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), p. 70.
- 87.
The programme was part of a series entitled “Tribune Libre” that appeared on the French network FR3 on March 27, 1978. See Lyotard , “A Podium without a Podium: Television According to J-F. Lyotard ,” in Political Writings: Jean-François Lyotard, translated by Bill Readings and Kevin Paul (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1993).
- 88.
Lyotard , “Podium Without a Podium,” 1978, p. 25.
- 89.
Available for consultation in the archives at the Institut National de l’Audiovisuel, housed at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.
- 90.
Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others (New York: Farrar, Straus and Girous, 2003), 65.
- 91.
“When on TV it’s hard. One talks a great deal while showing rather poor images that don’t say anything of importance.” http://debordements.fr/Grandeur-et-decadence-d-un-petit-commerce-de-cinema-Jean-Luc-Godard; “If I was on television I would use images to see something”; “I think that people would be passionate about seeing war live [in much the same way} as we go to see performers at the circus; I think war is made to be shown on television ”; “I did not see what happened at the Malvinas Islands.” My italics.
- 92.
“It is true that the life of this idiot is largely dedicated to images [...] having demonstrated that there are no images but sequences of images...an image of the way we have of inscribing ourselves or having ourselves inscribed at the center or the periphery of the universe.”
- 93.
“I feel in occupied territory.”
- 94.
“To show resistance in an image of change; we can change in between images; what we can show is the in-between, the interval.”
- 95.
“The poor stupid revolutionary, millionaire in images of elsewhere.”
- 96.
The main theorists in the Anglophone world regarding “Third Cinema” are Ella Shohat and Robert Stam. The latter, in his article “Beyond Third Cinema: The Aesthetics of Hybridity,” defines this kind of cinema as emerging in the late 1960s and 1970s as an alternative to Hollywood at a time when Third World intellectuals called for a tricontinental revolution (with Ho Chi Minh, Che Guevara and Frantz Fanon the main referential figures). The principles of Third Cinema were established in a series of manifestos: Glauber Rocha’s “Aesthetics of Hunger” (1965), Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino’s “Towards a Third Cinema” (1969) and Julio García Espinosa’s “For an Imperfect Cinema” (1969). Stam sums it up in this manner: “Rocha called for a ‘hungry’ cinema of ‘sad, ugly films,’ Solanas and Getino called for militant guerilla documentaries, and Espinosa called for an ‘imperfect’ cinema energized by the ‘low’ forms of popular culture, where the process of communication was more important than the product, where political values were more important than ‘production values.’” The themes of Third Cinema were in general Fanonian: “the psychic stigmata of colonialism, the therapeutic value of anti-colonial violence, and the urgent necessity of a new culture and a new human being, stressing anti-colonial militancy and violence, literal/political in the case of Solanas-Getino, and metaphoric/aesthetic in the case of Rocha.” Robert Stam, Unthinking Eurocentrism (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 248. See also Rethinking Third Cinema, edited by Anthony Guneratne and Wimal Dissanayake (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 31. Today Third Cinema is considered as consisting of a wide range of alternative cinematic practices, and the genre may include films that adopt the diasporic point of view. See also Ella Shohat’s “Framing Post-Third-Worldist Culture: Gender and Nation in Middle Eastern/North African Film and Video,” Jouvert 1, no. 1 (1997).
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Emmelhainz, I. (2019). Elsewhere: Dialogue of Points of View: Jean-Luc Godard and Tiersmondisme. In: Jean-Luc Godard’s Political Filmmaking. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72095-1_3
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