Abstract
Intelligence (also known as general mental ability or g), as an explanatory construct, has been somewhat ignored in the study of human development in general and in leader development in particular. Studies of intelligence reveal it to be a strong predictor of academic, career, and life success. Researchers in the past have shown that intelligence also plays a role in predicting leadership emergence and effectiveness. Leader development, however, since it is properly nested in developmental (and organizational) psychology, tends to elicit the use of models and social processes to explain how leaders develop. In contrast, intelligence researchers have traditionally taken an individual difference approach. Evidence is herein presented which supports the validity of intelligence as a psychological scientific construct and demonstrates its association with academic, occupational, and life achievement. Then, in more speculative fashion, the literature dealing with leadership and leader development is explained, culminating in suggestions for a research agenda.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Anastasi, A. (1986). Intelligence as a quality of behavior. In R. J. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 19–21). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Anderson, J. R., & Lebiere, C. (1998). The atomic components of thought. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Anderson, M. (1992). Intelligence and development: A cognitive theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Arvey, L. M. (1986). General ability in employment: A discussion. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3), 415–420.
Atwater, L. E., Dionne, S. D., Avolio, B., Camobreco, J. E., & Lau, A. W. (1999). A longitudinal study of the leadership development process: Individual differences predicting leader effectiveness. Human Relations, 52(12), 1543–1562.
Avolio, B. J., & Hannah, S. T. (2008). Developmental readiness: Accelerating leader development. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(4), 331–347.
Baron, J. (1981). Reflective thinking as a goal of education. Intelligence, 5(4), 291–309.
Baron, J. (1986). Capacities, dispositions, and rational thinking. In R. J. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 29–33). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Blair, C. A., Gorman, C. A., Helland, K., & Delise, L. (2014). The smart leader: Examining the relationship between intelligence and leader development behavior. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 35(3), 241–258.
Boyce, L. A., Zaccaro, S. J., & Wisecarver, M. Z. (2010). Propensity for self-development of leadership attributes: Understanding, predicting, and supporting performance of leader self-development. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(1), 159–178.
Brody, N. (1992). Intelligence (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Brody, N. (1997). Intelligence, schooling, and society. American Psychologist, 52(10), 1046–1050.
Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1986). Academic intelligence and learning potential. In R. J. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 39–43). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Browne-Miller, A. (1995). Intelligence policy: Its impact on college admissions and other social policies. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Campbell, D. J., & Dardis, G. J. (2004). The “be, know, do” model of leader development. People and Strategy, 27(2), 26–39.
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Carroll, J. B. (1995). Reflections on Stephen jay Gould’s The Mismeasure of Man (1981): A retrospective review. Intelligence, 21(2), 121–134.
Cattell, R. B. (1987). Intelligence: Its structure, growth and action. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science.
Ceci, S. J. (1996). On intelligence: A bioecological treatise on intellectual development (expanded ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ceci, S. J., & Papierno, P. B. (2005). The rhetoric and reality of gap closing: When the “have-nots” gain but the “haves” gain even more. American Psychologist, 60(2), 149–160.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159.
Condly, S. J. (2006). Resilience in children: A review of literature with implications for education. Urban Education, 41(3), 211–236.
Connelly, M. S., Gilbert, J. A., Zaccaro, S. J., Threlfall, K. V., Marks, M. A., & Mumford, M. D. (2000). Exploring the relationship of leadership skills and knowledge to leader performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 65–86.
Coumbe, A. T., Condly, S. J., & Skimmyhorn, W. L. (in press). Still soldiers and scholars? A review of officer testing in the US Army. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute.
Dalakoura, A. (2010). Differentiating leader and leadership development: A collective framework for leadership development. Journal of Management Development, 29(5), 432–441.
Daly, M., Egan, M., & O’Reilly, F. (2015). Childhood general cognitive ability predicts leadership role occupancy across life: Evidence from 17,000 cohort study participants. The Leadership Quarterly, 26(3), 323–341.
Day, D. V. (2001). Leadership development: A review in context. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 581–613.
Deary, I. J. (1993). Inspection time and WAIS-R IQ subtypes: A confirmatory factor analysis. Intelligence, 17(2), 223–236.
Deese, J. (1993). Human abilities versus intelligence. Intelligence, 17(2), 107–116.
Detterman, D. K. (1993). Intelligence and the brain. In P. A. Vernon (Ed.), The neuropsychology of individual differences (pp. 35–57). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Detterman, D. K. (2014). Introduction to the Intelligence special issue on the development of expertise: Is ability necessary? Intelligence, 45, 1–5.
Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 49(8), 725–747.
Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J. (Eds.). (1991). Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.
Eysenck, H. J. (1998). A new look at intelligence. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Eysenck, H. J., & Kamin, L. J. (Eds.). (1981). The intelligence controversy. New York, NY: Wiley.
Flynn, J. R. (1991). Asian Americans: Achievement beyond IQ. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Foti, R. J., & Hauenstein, N. (2007). Pattern and variable approaches in leadership emergence and effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(2), 347–355.
Furnham, A., Crump, J., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2007). Managerial level, personality and intelligence. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(8), 805–818.
Gagné, E. D., Yekovich, C. W., & Yekovich, F. R. (1993). The cognitive psychology of school learning. New York, NY: Longman.
Galton, F. (1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. London: MacMillan.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1986). The waning of intelligence tests. In R. J. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 73–76). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. (2005). “can you see the real me?” a self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 343–372.
Ghiselli, E. E. (1963a). Intelligence and managerial success. Psychological Reports, 12(3), 898.
Ghiselli, E. E. (1963b). Managerial talent. American Psychologist, 18(10), 631–642.
Ghiselli, E. E. (1963c). The validity of management traits in relation to occupational level. Personnel Psychology, 16(2), 109–113.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1986a). The g factor in employment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3), 293–296.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1986b). Validity versus utility of mental tests: Example of the SAT. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3), 363–378.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1986c). Societal consequences of the g factor in employment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3), 379–410.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence, 24(1), 79–132.
Gottfredson, L. S. (2002). g: Highly general and highly practical. In R. J. Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), The general factor of intelligence: How general is it? (pp. 331–380). Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gottfried, A. E., Gottfried, A. W., Reichard, R. J., Guerin, D. W., Oliver, P. H., & Riggio, R. E. (2011). Motivational roots of leadership: A longitudinal study from childhood through adulthood. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 510–519.
Gould, S. J. (1996). The mismeasure of man. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Green, N. E. (1950). Verbal intelligence and effectiveness of participation in group discussion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 41(7), 440–445.
Guerin, D. W., Oliver, P. H., Gottfried, A. W., Gottfried, A. E., Reichard, R. J., & Riggio, R. E. (2011). Childhood and adolescent antecedents of social skills and leadership potential in adulthood: Temperamental approach/withdrawal and extraversion. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 482–494.
Guilford, J. P. (1956). The structure of intellect. Psychological Bulletin, 53(4), 267–293.
Hall, D. T., & Seibert, K. W. (1992). Strategic management development: Linking organizational strategy, succession planning, and managerial learning. In D. H. Montross & C. J. Shinkman (Eds.), Career development: Theory and practice (pp. 255–275). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Hawk, J. (1986). Real world implications of g. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3), 411–414.
Hedlund, J., Forsythe, G. B., Horvath, J. A., Williams, W. M., Snook, S., & Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Identifying and assessing tacit knowledge: Understanding the practical intelligence of military leaders. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(2), 117–140.
Herrnstein, R. (1971). I.Q. The Atlantic Monthly, 228(3), 43–64.
Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York, NY: Free Press.
Horn, J. L. (1968). Organization of abilities and the development of intelligence. Psychological Review, 75(3), 242–259.
Horn, J. L., & Cattell, R. B. (1966). Refinement and test of the theory of fluid and crystallized general intelligence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 57(5), 253–270.
Hunter, J. E. (1986). Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitudes, job knowledge, and job performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3), 340–362.
Hunter, J. E., & Hunter, R. F. (1984). Validity and utility of alternative predictors across studies. Psychological Bulletin, 96(1), 72–98.
Jago, A. G. (1982). Leadership: Perspectives in theory and research. Management Science, 28(3), 315–336.
Jensen, A. R. (1969). How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement? Harvard Educational Review, 39(1), 1–123.
Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York, NY: Free Press.
Jensen, A. R. (1986a). g: Artifact or reality? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3), 301–331.
Jensen, A. R. (1986b). Intelligence: “Definition,” measurement, and future research. In R. J. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 109–112). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Judge, T. A., Colbert, A. E., & Ilies, R. (2004). Intelligence and leadership: A quantitative review and test of theoretical perspectives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(3), 542–552.
Judge, T. A., Klinger, R. L., & Simon, L. S. (2010). Time is on my side: Time, general mental ability, human capital, and extrinsic career success. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 92–107.
Kanape-Willingshofer, A., & Bergner, S. (2015). Individual differences and educational leadership. In K. Beycioglu & P. Pashiardis (Eds.), Multidimensional perspectives on principal leadership effectiveness (pp. 171–206). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of moral stages. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.
Li, W. D., Arvey, R. D., & Song, Z. (2011). The influence of general mental ability, self-esteem and family socioeconomic status on leadership role occupancy and leader advancement: The moderating role of gender. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 520–534.
Locurto, C. (1991). Sense and nonsense about IQ: The case for uniqueness. New York, NY: Praeger.
Loehlin, J. C. (2004). Latent variable models: An introduction to factor, path, and structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Lord, R. G., De Vader, C. L., & Alliger, G. M. (1986). A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 402–410.
Lynn, R. (1987). The intelligence of the mongoloids: A psychometric, evolutionary, and neurological theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 8(6), 813–844.
Mann, R. D. (1959). A review of the relationships between personality and performance in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 56(4), 241–270.
Marcy, R. T., & Mumford, M. D. (2010). Leader cognition: Improving leader performance through causal analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(1), 1–19.
Marshall-Mies, J. C., Fleishman, E. A., Martin, J. A., Zaccaro, S. J., Baughman, W. A., & McGee, M. L. (2000). Development and evaluation of cognitive and metacognitive measures for predicting leadership potential. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 135–153.
Matarazzo, J. D. (1992). Biological and physiological correlates of intelligence. Intelligence, 16(3–4), 257–258.
McCauley, C. D., Kanaga, K., & Lafferty, K. (2010). Leader development systems. In E. Van Velsor, C. D. McCauley, & M. N. Ruderman (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (3rd ed., pp. 29–61). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
McCauley, C. D., Van Velsor, E., & Ruderman, M. N. (2010). Introduction: Our view of leadership development. In E. Van Velsor, C. D. McCauley, & M. N. Ruderman (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (3rd ed., pp. 1–26). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
McCuen, T. L. (1929). Leadership and intelligence. Education, 50, 89–95.
Mumford, M. D., Marks, M. A., Connelly, M. S., Zaccaro, S. J., & Reiter-Palmon, R. (2000). Development of leadership skills: Experience and timing. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 87–114.
Mumford, M. D., Zaccaro, S. J., Johnson, J. F., Diana, M., Gilbert, J. A., & Threlfall, K. V. (2000). Patterns of leader characteristics: Implications for performance and development. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 115–133.
Murphy, S. E., & Johnson, S. K. (2011). The benefits of a long-lens approach to leader development: Understanding the seeds of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 459–470.
Murray, C. (1998). Income inequality and IQ. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute.
Murray, C. (2002). IQ and income inequality in a sample of sibling pairs from advantaged family backgrounds. The American Economic Review, 92(2), 339–343.
Murray, C. (2013). Coming apart: The state of white America, 1960–2010. New York, NY: Crown Forum.
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Jr., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., … Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51(2), 77–101.
Pajares, F., & Kranzler, J. (1995). Self-efficacy beliefs and general mental ability in mathematical problem-solving. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20(4), 426–443.
Park, G., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2008). Ability differences among people who have commensurate degrees matter for scientific creativity. Psychological Science, 19(10), 957–961.
Pech, R. (2003). Developing a leadership knowledge architecture: A cognitive approach. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 24(1), 32–42.
Piaget, J., & Cook, M. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Popper, M. (2005). Main principles and practices in leader development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 26(1), 62–75.
Popper, M., & Mayseless, O. (2007). The building blocks of leader development: A psychological conceptual framework. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(7), 664–684.
Ree, M. J., Carretta, T. R., & Teachout, M. S. (1995). Role of ability and prior job knowledge in complex training performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(6), 721–730.
Ree, M. J., & Earles, J. A. (1991). Predicting training success: Not much more than g. Personnel Psychology, 44(2), 321–332.
Ree, M. J., & Earles, J. A. (1992). Intelligence is the best predictor of job performance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(3), 86–89.
Ree, M. J., Earles, J. A., & Teachout, M. S. (1994). Predicting job performance: Not much more than g. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(4), 518–524.
Reed, T. E., & Jensen, A. R. (1991). Arm nerve conduction velocity (NCV), brain NCV, reaction time, and intelligence. Intelligence, 15(1), 33–47.
Reichard, R. J., & Johnson, S. K. (2011). Leader self-development as organizational strategy. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(1), 33–42.
Reichard, R. J., Riggio, R. E., Guerin, D. W., Oliver, P. H., Gottfried, A. W., & Gottfried, A. E. (2011). A longitudinal analysis of relationships between adolescent personality and intelligence with adult leader emergence and transformational leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 471–481.
Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983). How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype → environment effects. Child Development, 54(2), 424–435.
Schank, R. C. (1986). Explaining intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 121–131). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Schank, R. C. (1990). Tell me a story: Narrative and intelligence. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. (2004). General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 162–173.
Schmidt, F. L., Ones, D. S., & Hunter, J. E. (1992). Personnel selection. Annual Review of Psychology, 43(1), 627–670.
Simonton, D. K. (1985). Intelligence and personal influence in groups: Four nonlinear models. Psychological Review, 92(4), 532–547.
Smith, J. A., & Foti, R. J. (1998). A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence. The Leadership Quarterly, 9(2), 147–160.
Snyderman, M., & Rothman, S. (1987). Survey of expert opinion on intelligence and aptitude testing. American Psychologist, 42(2), 137–144.
Snyderman, M., & Rothman, S. (1988). The IQ controversy: The media and public policy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Spearman, C. (1904). General intelligence, objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201–293.
Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company.
Spinath, B., Spinath, F. M., Harlaar, N., & Plomin, R. (2006). Predicting school achievement from general cognitive ability, self-perceived ability, and intrinsic value. Intelligence, 34(4), 363–374.
Spitz, H. H. (1999). Attempts to raise intelligence. In M. Anderson (Ed.), The development of intelligence (pp. 275–293). East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press.
Spitz, H. H. (2003). The raising of intelligence: A selected history of attempts to raise retarded intelligence. New York, NY: Routledge.
Stankov, L., & Lee, J. (2017). Self-beliefs: Strong correlates of mathematics achievement and intelligence. Intelligence, 61, 11–16.
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of intelligence. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R. J. (1990). Metaphors of mind: Conceptions of the nature of intelligence. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R. J. (1997). The concept of intelligence and its role in lifelong learning and success. American Psychologist, 52(10), 1030–1037.
Sternberg, R. J. (1999). The theory of successful intelligence. Review of General Psychology, 3(4), 292–316.
Sternberg, R. J., & Berg, C. A. (1986). Quantitative integration: Definitions of intelligence: A comparison of the 1921 and 1986 symposia. In R. J. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 155–162). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Sternberg, R. J., & Detterman, D. K. (Eds.). (1986). What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Sternberg, R. J., & Williams, W. M. (1996). How to develop student creativity. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Stogdill, R. M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. The Journal of Psychology, 25(1), 35–71.
Terman, L. M. (1916). The measurement of intelligence: An explanation of and a complete guide for the use of the Stanford revision and extension of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale. Cambridge, MA: The Riverside Press.
Thurstone, L. L. (1924). The nature of intelligence. London: Routledge.
Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Vaculik, M., Prochazka, J., & Smutny, P. (2014). Competencies and leadership effectiveness: Which skills predict effective leadership? In European conference on management, leadership and governance (pp. 337–344). Zagreb, Croatia: Academic Conferences International Limited.
Yammarino, F. J. (2000). Leadership skills: Introduction and overview. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 5–9.
Zaccaro, S. J., Mumford, M. D., Connelly, M. S., Marks, M. A., & Gilbert, J. A. (2000). Assessment of leader problem-solving capabilities. The Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 37–64.
Disclaimer
The views expressed here are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy position of the United States Military Academy, the Department of the Army, the Department of Defense, or the US Government.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
J. Condly, S. (2017). General Mental Ability (g) and Leader Development. In: Clark, M., Gruber, C. (eds) Leader Development Deconstructed . Annals of Theoretical Psychology, vol 15. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64740-1_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64740-1_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-64739-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-64740-1
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)