Abstract
Salt solution mining is just what it says, the mining of various salts by dissolving them and pumping the resulting brine to the surface where it is concentrated or processed to recover the desired chemical products. Actual dissolution and recovery methodology is predicated on the solubility of the targeted salt, A “rule of thumb” in the solution mining industry is that every 7–8 m3 of freshwater pumped into a cavity will dissolve 1 m3 of halite. Water or undersaturated brine is injected through a purpose-designed well drilled into a salt mass to etch out a void or cavern. The resulting “almost saturated” brine is then extracted for processing. The technique usually targets salts at depths greater than 400–500 m and down to 2,000 m (Fig. 13.1). The current deepest salt solution operation is in the Barradeel concession in northern Netherlands in Zechstein Z2 salts and operating at depths around 2,800 m (Geluk et al. 2007). At depths greater than 2,000 m ongoing salt creep tends to reduce cavern size. Some operating brinefield caverns are as shallow as 150 m, but this can lead to catastrophic chimneying and stoping in sediments above cavity. With deeper operations the landsurface tends to subside into a bowl of subsidence, as it does above many conventional mines. Cavern shape and the upward rise of the cavern roof is today controlled by an inert fluid blanket pumped in and maintained at the top of the zone of active brine creation. Early solution wells did not use this blanket technology. In the 1800’s and extending into first half of last century many brinefield operators perceived surface sinks, collapses and regular abandonment of caved wells as normal, during the operational life of a saltfield. Attitudes in the mining community today, across all types of exploration and production, are much changed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbon gases, principally methane with lesser quantities of ethane, propane, butane, and other gases.
- 2.
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is a way to store massive amounts of renewable power by compressing air at very high pressures and storing it in large underground caverns (or depleted fields or aquifers). Compression and underground storage takes place at times of excess energy generation (aka peaking). The compressed air is later released and run through turbines to generate power when wind turbines and solar plant outputs are reduced and power is needed.
- 3.
Black start is the ability of a plant to start up during a complete grid outage. Because nuclear power stations require some power to resume operation, the Huntorf plant was built in part to provide black-start power.
- 4.
Cushion gas is the volume of gas needed to fill a subsurface storage facility to where the gas pressure is sufficient to supply a significant flow of gas to the surface.
- 5.
On completion of this section of highway, and the subsidence that followed, the press and the locals were quick to blame the subsidence on the oil industry and poor drilling practice, with subsequent questions as to the competency of the engineering studies done prior to highway construction. When geology crews began their preliminary studies for this section of 1–70 in the early 1960s, there was a large pond along the right-of-way, some six miles west of Russell. They noticed that the pond appeared rather deep, and although it was situated in a streambed, apparently it had no dam. Asking around among local residents, Highway Commission geologists were told that the pond had always been there. An 83-year-old woman who had lived in the area all of her life reported that there had been a pond in that location ever since she could remember (pre-oilfield!). So little additional planning as to its origin was given. During construction, the Crawford and Witt sinks were filled in and the highway was built, along with a nearby bridge to carry county traffic over the interstate. Final grading for the new lanes was finished in the spring of 1966 and the subsidence problems began.
Once again it seems Hutchison Salt in the Gorham region likely was dissolving naturally with a typical landscape sink expression. If word of mouth recollection was correct, then sinks were present in the area prior to both the oil field and highway construction. Then again, as all lawyers know, it is hard to sue mother nature.
References
Allison, M. L., 2001, The Hutchinson Gas Explosions: Unraveling a Geologic Mystery: Kansas Bar Association, 26th Annual KBA/KIOGA Oil and Gas Law Conference, v. 1, p. 3.1-3.29.
Andrejchuk, V., 2002, Collapse above the world’s largest potash mine, Ural, Russia: International Journal Speleology, v. 31, p. 137–158.
Andrejchuk, V., A. Eraso, and M. Domínguez, 2000, A large sinkhole in the Verchnekamsky potash basin in the urals: Mine Water and the Environment, v. 19, p. 2–18.
API, 1994, Design of solution-mined underground storage practices: Washington, DC, American Petroleum Institute, Recommended practice No. 1114
Autin, W. J., 2002, Landscape evolution of the Five Islands of south Louisiana: scientific policy and salt dome utilization and management: Geomorphology, v. 47, p. 227–244.
Bach, J., I. Fitz, N. Gueschow, V. Rentjes, H. J. Kretzchmar, and M. Krafki, 1985, Recovery of carnallite by isothermal solution mining, German (East) patent DD221235A1,VEB Kombinat Kali,, p. 8.
Bauer, S., 1999, Analysis of subsidence data for the Bryan Mound site, Texas: Sandia Report, SAND99-1739, Sandia National Laboratories.
Bauer, S. J., B. L. Ehgartner, and J. T. Dale, 2000, Geotechnical studies associated with decommissioning the Strategic Petroleum Reserve facility at Weeks Island, Louisiana: a case history: Proc. S.M.R.I. Fall Meeting Technical Session, San Antonio, p. 146–156.
Baumgardner, R. W., A. D. Hoadley, and A. G. Goldstein, 1982, The Wink Sink; a case history of evaporite dissolution and catastrophic subsidence: Formation of the Wink Sink, a salt dissolution and collapse feature, Winkler County, Texas: . v. Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin, Report of Investigations No. 114, 38p.
Bérest, P., J. Bergues, and B. Brouard, 1999, Static and dynamic compressibility of deep underground caverns: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Mining Sci., v. 36, p. 1031–1049.
Bérest, P., and B. Brouard, 2001, Storage of tritiated water in salt caverns: In Proc. KIWIR 6th International Workshop on Key Issues in Waste Isolation Research, ENPC, P. Delage ed., Presses de l’Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, p. 497–511, 2001.
Bérest, P., and B. Brouard, 2002, Safety of salt caverns used for underground storage: Proc. 8th Portuguese Congress for Geotechnique, 15–18 April 2002, Lisbon, Portugal.
Bérest, P., and B. Brouard, 2003, Safty of salt caverns used for underground storage: Oil and Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP, v. 58, p. 361–384.
Bouraoui, S., Z. Cakir, R. Bougdal, and M. Meghraoui, 2012, MT-InSAR monitoring of ground deformation around the Haoud Berkaoui sinkhole (SE Algeria): Geophysical Research Abstracts, EGU General Assembly 2012, held 22–27 April, 2012 in Vienna, Austria, v. 14, EGU2012-3344.
Buffet, A., 1998, The collapse of Compagnie des Salins SG4 and SG5 drilling: Proc. S.M.R.I. Fall Meeting, Rome,, p. 79–105.
Cartwright, M., M. McLaughlin, J. Ratigan, and D. Blankenship, 2000, A sinkhole at the EGP Fuels Company LPG storage terminal Mount Belvieu Texas: Proc. S.M.R.I. Fall Meeting Technical Session, San Antonio, p. 128–143.
Crossley, N. G., 1997, Downhole probes evaluate cavern integrity: Oil and Gas Journal, v. March 3, 1997, p. 74–79.
Crossley, N. G., 1998, Sonar surveys used in gas-storage cavern analysis: Oil & Gas Journal, v. May 4, 1998, p. 98–108.
Croxton, N. M., 2003, Subsidence on Interstate 70 in Russell County, Kansas, related to salt dissolution – A history, in K. S. Johnson, and J. T. Neal, eds., Evaporite karst and engineering/ environmental problems in the United States, v. 109, Oklahoma Geological Survey Circular, p. 149–155.
Currie, P. K., and J. V. Walters, 1985, Finite element modelling of cavity behaviour in the solution mining of magnesium salts, in W. J. Schlitt, ed., Salt and Brines ‘85: New York, Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Petr. Eng., p. 87–96.
Dahl, L. J., 1985, Solution Mining Bibliography, in W. J. Schlitt, ed., Salt and Brines ‘85, Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Petr. Eng., p. 169–174.
Day, R., 1974, White River Nahcolite Solution Mine: Proceedings of the SME Annual Meeting, Albuquerque, NM, February, 14–17.
Day, R. W., 1967, Solution mining of carnallite, US Patent 3,555,212, Reynolds Metals, p. 5.
Deutsch, Z. G., 1978, Brine wells and pipelines, in D. W. Kuafmann, ed., Sodium Chloride: The production and properties of salt and brine: Washington DC, American Chemical Society, p. 142–185.
Dillard, D. S., J. G. Davis, and R. L. Every, 1975, Solution mining potassium chloride from subterranean deposits, Canada Patent 961,408, p. 18.
Drijkoningen, G., G. van Noort, R. Arts, J. Bullen, and J. Thorbecke, 2012, Seismic time-lapse effects of solution salt mining – a feasibility study: Geophysical Prospecting, v. 60, p. 239–254.
Dunrud, C. R., and B. B. Nevins, 1981, Solution mining and subsidence in evaporite rocks in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigation Series Map I-1298, 2 sheets.
Durup, J. G., 1991, Relationship between subsidence and cavern convergence at Tersanne (France): Proc. SMRI Spring Meeting, Atlanta.
Dusseault, M. B., and B. C. Davidson, 1999, Design and management of salt solution caverns for toxic waste disposal: Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, v. 38, p. 56–61.
Dyni, J. R., 1996, Sodium carbonate resources of the Green River Formation: United States Geological Survey, Open File Report, v. 96–729, p. 39 p.
Dyni, R. C., 1986, Subsidence investigations over salt-solution mines, Hutchinson, Kansas: United States Bureau of Mines Information Circular 9083.
Evans, D., M. Stephenson, and R. Shaw, 2009, The present and future use of “land” below ground: Land Use Policy, v. 26, Supplement 1, p. S302-S316.
Flad, R., J. Zhu, C. Wang, P. Chen, L. von Falkenhausen, Z. Sun, and S. Li, 2005, Archaeological and chemical evidence for early salt production in China: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, v. 102, p. 12618–12622.
Fokker, P. A., 1995, The behaviour of salt and salt caverns: Doctoral thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands, 143 p.
Gisotti, G., 1991, A Case of Induced Subsidence for Extraction of Salt by Hydrosolution, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Land Subsidence, v. 200, IAHL, p. 235–245.
Garlicki, A., 1993, Solution mining of Miocene salts in Poland and its environmental impact, in H. a. T. Hoshi Kakihana, ed., Proc. 7th Symp. on Salt, Kyoto, Japan, April 1992: Amsterdam, Elsevier Science, p. 419–424.
Garlicki, A., M. Pulina, and J. Rozkowski, 1996, Karst phenomena and their influence on the ground-waters threat in the Wieliczka salt mine (in Polish): Przeglad Geologiczny, v. 44, p. 1032–1038.
Garlicki, A., and Z. Wilk, 1993, Geological and hydrogeological background of the recent water damage in Wieliczka Salt Mine (in Polish): Przegla ˛d Geologiczny, v. 3, p. 183–192.
Gebhardt, F., D. Eby, and D. Barnette, 2001, Utilizing coiled tubing technology to control a liquid propane storage well fire, A case history: Proc. SMRI Spring Meeting, Orlando, p. 301–308.
Gowan, S. W., and S. M. Trader, 1999, Mine failure associated with a pressurized brine horizon: Retsof Salt Mine, western New York: Applications & Environmental & Engineer, v. 6, p. 57–70.
Grappe, J., 2000, Alternative uses of underground caverns: An introduction to the technology of solution mining; Spring 2000 Technical Class, Solution Mining Reseach Institute, Hague, Netherlands, p. 154–178.
Guarascio, M., G. Fernandez, and R. L. Thoms, 1995, Updated evaluation of sinkhole potential at the Belvedere Spinello Brinefield: SMRI Fall Meeting, Sept 25 – Oct 1, Hanover, Germany, p. 43 p.
Haynes, H. W., 1997, Solution mining of trona: In Situ, v. 21, p. 357–394.
Hedlund, F. H., 2012, The extreme carbon dioxide outburst at the Menzengraben potash mine, 7 July 1953: Safety Science, v. 50, p. 537–553.
Henderson, K., 1974, Methods of joining two or more wells for brine production, in A. H. Coogan, ed., Fourth Symposium on Salt, v. 2: Cleveland, N. Ohio Geol. Soc., p. 211–218.
Hendron, A. J., and P. A. Lenzini, 1983, Subsidence investigation at Well #56, Carey Salt Brinefield, Hutchison Kansas: SMRI Research Project Report, v. 83-0001-SMRI, p. 67.
Ireson, A. T., 1990, Review of the soluble salt process for in situ recovery of hydrocarbons from oil shale with emphasis on leaching [of nahcolite] and possible beneficiation, in J. H. Gary, ed., Twenty-third Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings: Colden, CO, Colorado Sch. Mines Press, p. 152–155.
Jacoby, C. H., 1974, Solution mining of evaporites, in F. F. Aplan, ed., Solution Mining Symposium: New York, Am. Inst. Min. Met. Petrol. Eng., p. 165–171.
Johnson, K. S., 1987, Development of the Wink Sink in west Texas due to salt dissolution and collapse, Karst Hydrology: Proceedings of the Second Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes and the Environmental Impacts of Karst, Orlando Florida, 9-11 October 1987: Rotterdam, A. A. Balkema, p. 127–136.
Johnson, K. S., 1989, Development of the Wink Sink in West Texas, USA, due to salt dissolution and collapse: Environmental Geology and Water Science, v. 14, p. 81–92.
Johnson, K. S., 2001, Sinkholes associated with petroleum boreholes drilled through salt deposits in the USA: Proc. S.M.R.I. Fall Meeting , Albuquerque, p. 8–17.
Jones, C. E., and R. G. Blom, 2014, Bayou Corne, Louisiana, sinkhole: Precursory deformation measured by radar interferometry: Geology, v. 42, p. 111–114.
Knapp, R. W., D. W. Steeples, R. D. Miller, and C. D. McElwee, 1989, Seismic-reflection surveys at sinkholes in central Kansas, in D. W. Steeples, ed., Geophysics in Kansas, v. 226, Kansas Geological Survey, Bulletin, p. 95–116.
Kuhn, O., 2004, Ancient Chinese drilling: Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Recorder, v. 29, p. 39–43.
Kunstman, A., and M. M. Mazur, 2000, Cavern development and leaching simulation: An introduction to the technology of solution mining; Spring 2000 Technical Class, p. 60–80.
Kupfer, D., 1976, Shear zones inside Gulf Coast salt stocks help to delineate spines of movement: Bulletin American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 60, p. 1434–1447.
Kurlansky, M., 2002, Salt: A world history: New York, Walker & Co., 484 p.
Land, L., A., 2012, Electrical resistivity surveys of anthropogenic karst phenomena, southeastern New Mexico: New Mexico Geology, v. 34, p. 117–125.
Land, L., 2013, Geophysical records of anthropogenic sinkhole formation in the Delaware Basin region, Southeast New Mexico and West Texas, USA: Carbonates and Evaporites, v. 28, p. 183–190.
Lee, R., and E. De Souza, 1998, The effect of brine on the creep behaviour and dissolution chemistry of evaporites: Canadian Geotechnical Journal, v. 35, p. 720–729.
Linn, J. K., and J. Culbert, 1999, Experience in underground storage of crude oil in salt: Special Publication 90, Geo-Inst. ASCE, p. 810 p.
Looff, K. M., 2001, Recent Salt Related Uplift and Subsidence at Sour Lake Salt Dome, Hardin County, Texas: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 51, p. 187–194.
Malovichko, A., D. Shulakov, R. Dyaguilev, R. Sabirov, and B. Ahmetov, 2001, Comprehensive Monitoring of the Large Mine-Collapse at the Upper Kama Potash Deposit in Western Ural: Rockbursts and Seismicity in Mines – RaSiM5, South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, p. 309–312.
Mancini, F., F. Stecchi, M. Zanni, and G. Gabbianelli, 2009, Monitoring ground subsidence induced by salt mining in the city of Tuzla (Bosnia and Herzegovina): Environmental Geology, v. 58, p. 381–389.
Martinez, J. D., K. S. Johnson, and J. T. Neal, 1998, Sinkholes in Evaporite Rocks: American Scientist, v. 86, p. 38.
Morisseau, J. M., 2000, Uncontrolled leaching of salt layer in an oil field in Algeria: Proc. S.M.R.I. Fall Meeting Technical Session, San Antonio, p. 330–333.
Munson, D. E., 1997, Constitutive model of creep in rock salt applied to underground room closure: International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences & Geomechanics, v. 34, p. 233–247.
Neal, J. T., 1991, Prediction of Subsidence Resulting from Creep Closure of Solution-Mined Caverns in Salt Domes, in A. I. Johnson, ed., Land Subsidence: Proc. Fourth Inter. Symp. on Land Subsidence, IAHS Publ. No.200, p. 225.
Neal, J. T., 1994, Surface features indicative of subsurface evaporite dissolution: Implications for storage and mining: Solution Mining Research Institute, Meeting paper, 1994 Spring meeting, Houston Texas.
Neal, J. T., S. Ballard, S. J. Bauer, B. L. Ehgartner, T. E. Hinkebein, E. L. Hoffman, J. K. Linn, M. A. Molecke, and A. R. Sattler, 1997, Mine-Induced Sinkholes Over the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) Storage Facility at Weeks Island, Louisiana: Geologic Mitigation Prior to and During Decommissioning, SAND96-2387A.: Presented at 6th Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes and the Engineering & Environmental Impacts of Karst, Springfield, Missouri, April 6–9, 1997. Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM.
Neal, J. T., S. J. Bauer, and B. L. Ehgartne, 1995, Sinkhole Progression at the Weeks Island, Louisiana, Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) Site: Solution Mining Research Institute, Fall Meeting, San Antonio, Texas, October 1995. Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM.
Neal, J. T., and R. E. Myers, 1995, Salt dissolution sinkhole at the Weeks Island, Louisiana, strategic petroleum reserve storage site, in B. F. Beck, ed., Karst Geohazards: Engineering and environmental problems in karst terrane. Proc. 5th Conference, Gatlinburg 1995, Balkema, p. 61–65.
Neal, J. T., J. L. Todd, J. K. Linn, and T. R. Magorian, 1993, Threat of a sinkhole: A reevaluation of Cavern 4, Bayou Choctaw salt dome, Louisiana, SMRI: paper presented at 1993 Fall Meeting, Oct. 24–28, Lafayette, Louisiana, 15 p.
Nieto, A. S., and D. G. Russell, 1984, Sinkhole Development in Windsor-Detroit Solution Mines and the Role of Downward Mass Transfer in Subsidence: In-Situ, v. 8, p. 293–327.
Nigbor, M. T., 1982, State of the art of solution mining fo salt , potash, and soda ash: US Bureau of Mines, v. OFR 142–82, p. 90 pp.
Nissen, S. E., W. L. Watney, and J. Xia, 2004, High-resolution seismic detection of shallow natural gas beneath Hutchinson, Kansas: Environmental Geosciences, v. 11, p. 129–142.
Nunn, J. A., 2013, Bubble, bubble, tremors and trouble: The Corne Bayou sinkhole [abs.]: Reflections (Southeastern Geophysical Society of New Orleans), no. 12, p. 2, http://www.nogs.org/Nunn-Abst&Bio-Sept’13.pdf.
Ozarslan, A., 2012, Large-scale hydrogen energy storage in salt caverns: International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, v. 37, p. 14265–14277.
Payment, K. A., 2000, Loss of the Retsof salt mine: legal analysis of liability issues, in R. M. Geertmann, ed., Proc. 8th World Salt Symp., Salt 2000, The Hague, v. 1: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 399–404.
Perski, Z., R. Hanssen, A. Wojcik, and T. Wojciechowski, 2009, InSAR analyses of terrain deformation near the Wieliczka Salt Mine, Poland: Engineering Geology, v. 106, p. 58–67.
Powers, D. W., 2000, Evaporites, casing requirements, water-floods, and out-of-formation waters: potential for sinkhole developments: Proc. S.M.R.I. Fall Meeting Technical Session, San Antonio, p. 186–195.
Ratigan, J., 2000, A status report on the Solution Mining Research Institute cavern sealing and abandonment program: SMRI Report, 13 p.
Raucoules, D., C. Maisons, C. Carnec, S. Le Mouelic, C. King, and S. Hosford, 2003, Monitoring of slow ground deformation by ERS radar interferometry on the Vauvert salt mine (France): Comparison with ground-based measurement: Remote Sensing Of Environment, v. 88, p. 468–478.
Remson, D. R., O. B. Dommers, and F. W. Jessen, 1966, Techniques for developing predetermined shaped cavities in solution mining, in J. L. Rau, ed., Second Symposium on Salt: Cleveland, OH, N. Ohio Geol. Soc., p. 297–310.
Richner, D. R., D’Arcy Shock, J. K. Ahlness, D. R. Tweeton, W. C. Larson, D. J. Millenacker, and R. D. Schmidt, 1992, Solution Mining: In situ techniques, in H. L. Hartman, ed., SME Mining Engineering Handbook, v. 2: Liitleton, CO, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, p. 1493–1528.
Rokahr, R., K. Standtmeister, and D. Zander-Schiebenhofer, 1998, Mechanical determination of the maximum internal pressure for gas storage caverns in rock salt: SMRI Fall Meeting, Oct. 4–7, Rome Italy, 455 p.
Ruilin, G., 1997, Advanced geodrilling techniques in China, in G. Huadong, V. Singhroy, and T. G. Farr, eds., New Technology for Geosciences, Proceedings 30th International Geological Congress, v. 10: Utrecht, Nederlands, VSP, p. 225–232.
Schlitt, W. J., 1982, Interfacing technologies in solution mining: Proc. of the Second SME-SPE Intl. Solution Mining Symp., Denver: New York, AIME, 370 p.
Shi, T., Z. Chen, Z. Luo, S. Wang, and K. Wang, 2013, Mechanism of groundwater bursting in a deep rock salt mine region: a case study of the Anpeng trona and glauber mines, China: Environmental Earth Sciences, v. 68, p. 229–239.
Shock, D. A., 1985, Solution mining of soluble salts – its scope and its future, in W. J. Schlitt, ed., Salt and Brines ‘85: New York, Am. Inst. of Min. Met. and Pet. Eng., p. 1–10.
Stanczuk, D. T., F. Tatom, W. Tolbert, J. Simmons, J. Vancil, R. L. Thoms, and C. G. Smith, 1976, The mechanisms and ecological inpacts of the collapse of salt dome oil storage caverns: Project No. 5-210-00-567-04, Science Applications Inc. McLean Virginia.
Steenge, W. D., 1979, Solution mining at controlled production rate, Dutch patent, 7,905,287.
Swarts, S. W., 1993, Global positioning system (GPS) and its application s for subsidence monitoring: SMRI Spring Meeting, April 26, Syracuse, New York.
Taylor, D. G., 1970, Experiments on solution mining of borax at boron, California, in J. L. Rau, ed., Third Symposium on Salt, v. 1: Cleveland, N. Ohio Geol. Soc., p. 412–416.
Tepper, D. H., W. H. Kappel, T. S. Miller, and J. H. WilliaMS, 1997, Hydrogeologic effects of flooding in the partially collapsed Retsof salt mine, Livingston County, New York: US Geol. Survey Open File Report, v. 97–47, p. 36–37.
Terzaghi, R. D., 1971, Brinefield subsidence at Windsor, Ontario, Third symposium on Salt, v. 2: Cleveland, Ohio, Northern Ohio Geological Society, p. 298–307.
Thoms, R. L., 2000, Subsidence and sinkhole development over salt caverns: An introduction to the technology of solution mining; Spring 2000 Technical Class, p. 127–141.
Thoms, R. L., and R. M. Gehle, 1994, The Jefferson Island mine flooding revisited: Proc. S.M.R.I. Spring Meeting, Houston.
Thoms, R. L., and R. M. Gehle, 2000a, A brief history of salt cavern use, in R. M. Geertmann, ed., 8th World Salt Symposium, v. 1: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 207–214.
Thoms, R. L., and R. M. Gehle, 2000b, Winnfield mine flooding and collapse event of 1965: Proc. S.M.R.I. Fall Meeting Technical Session, San Antonio, p. 262–274.
Thoms, R. L., and G. Kiddoo, 1998, Guidelines for safety assessment of salt caverns: Proc. Technical Class, SMRI Fall Meeting, Roma, Texas, p. 113–140.
Tomasko, D., 1985, A numerical model for predicting the thermal behaviour of caverns in the Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Doctoral thesis, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
Usdowski, E., and M. Dietzel, 1998, Atlas and data of solid-solution equilibria of marine evaporites: Berlin, Springer Verlag, 316 p.
Veil, J., D. Elcock, M. Raivel, D. Caudle, R. C. Ayers Jr., and B. Grunewald, 1996, Preliminary technical and legal evaluation of disposing of nonhazardous oil field waste into salt caverns, Washington, USA,Argonne National Laboratory, Report for US Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy under contract W-31-109-ENG-38.
Vogel, H. U., 1993, The Great Well of China: Scientific American, v. 268, p. 116–122.
Von Tryller, H., 2002, The Cavern Field No. 11 in Ocnele Mari – History, Present and Future: Solution Mining Research Institute Proceedings, Spring Meeting, 28 April 1 May, 2002, Banff, Canada, p. 10 pp.
Walters, R. F., 1978, Land subsidence in central Kansas related to salt dissolution: Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin 214, p. 1–82.
Walters, R. F., 1991, Gorham Oil Field, Russell County, Kansas: Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin 228.
Waltham, T., F. Bell, and M. Culshaw, 2005, Sinkholes and Subsidence: Karst and Cavernous Rocks in Engineering and Construction: Berlin Heidelberg, Springer Praxis Books, 382 p.
Wassmann, T. H., 1983, Cavity utilization in the Netherlands, Sixth International symposium on Salt, v. II, p. 191–201.
Watney, W. L., S. E. Nissen, S. Bhattacharya, and D. Young, 2003, Evaluation of the Role of Evaporite Karst in the Hutchinson, Kansas, Gas Explosions, January 17 and 18, 2001, in K. S. Johnson, and J. T. Neal, eds., Evaporite karst and engineering/environmental problems in the United State, Oklahoma Geological Survey Circular 109, p. 119–147.
Watts, R. A., 1991, Subsidence surveys: SMRI Fall Meeting, Oct 29, Las Vegas Nevada, 23 p.
Whyatt, J., and F. Varley, 2008, Catastrophic Failures of Underground Evaporite Mines: Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining (ICGCM), July 29–31, 2008; Peng, S. S., Mark, C., Finfinger, G. L., Tadolini, S. C., Khair. A. W., Heasley, K.A., Luo-Y, eds., Morgantown, West Virginia University, p. 113–122.
Wilke, A. R., C. Hellberg, and O. Bornemann, 2001, Geological interpretation of domal salt structures in the North European Zechstein Formation: Influence on cavern development: Solution Mining Research Institute Technical Paper Fall 2001 Meeting, 7–10 October, Albuquerque, New Mexico, p. 9 pp.
Wong, K. W., 1982, A manual on ground surveys for the detection and measurement of subsidence related to solution mining: SMRI Research Project Report, v. 81-0003A-SMRI.
Yang, C., W. Jing, J. J. K. Daemen, G. Zhang, and C. Du, 2013, Analysis of major risks associated with hydrocarbon storage caverns in bedded salt rock: Reliability Engineering & System Safety, v. 113, p. 94–111.
Yanosky, T. M., and W. M. Kappel, 1997, Effects of solution mining of salt on wetland hydrology as inferred from tree rings: Water Resources Research, v. 33, p. 457–470.
Yoshida, T., 1992, Salt production techniques in ancient China: the Aobo tu (translated and revised by Hans Ulrich Vogel): Sinica Leidensia, v. 27: Leiden ; New York, E.J. Brill, 309 p.
Yuanxiong, L., and N. Chengxun, 1983, Technical development of solution mining of thinnly bedded rock salt deposits of Ziliujing, Sinchuan China, in B. C. Schreiber, ed., Proceedings 6th International Salt Symposium, v. 2: Alexandria VA, Salt Institute, p. 87–99.
Zamfirescu, F., M. Mocuta, T. Constantinecu, E. Medves, and A. Danchiv, 2003, The main causes of a geomechanical accident of brine caverns at field II of Ocnele Mari – Romania: RMZ – Materials and Geoenvironment, v. 50, p. 431–434.
Zechner, E., M. Konz, A. Younes, and P. Huggenberger, 2011, Effects of tectonic structures, salt solution mining, and density-driven groundwater hydraulics on evaporite dissolution (Switzerland): Hydrogeology Journal, v. 19, p. 1323–1334.
Zheng, J., and A. C. Palmer, 2009, Bamboo pipelines in Ancient China (and Now?): Journal of Pipeline Engineering, v. 8, p. 95–98.
Zhong, C., and J. Huang, 1997, Drilling and Gas Recovery Technology in Ancient China, Shell Companies in Greater China, 44 p.
Zuber, A., J. Grabczak, and A. Garlicki, 2000, Catastrophic and dangerous inflows to salt mines in Poland as related to the origin of water determined by isotope methods: Environmental Geology, v. 39, p. 299–311.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Warren, J.K. (2016). Solution Mining and Salt Cavern Usage. In: Evaporites. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13512-0_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13512-0_13
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-13511-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-13512-0
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)