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Evaporites pp 959–1079Cite as

Hydrocarbons and Evaporites

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Abstract

Even though evaporites constitute less than 2 % of the world’s sedimentary rocks, one-half of the world’s largest oilfields are sealed by evaporites, the other half are sealed by shales (Fig. 10.1; Grunau 1987). Kirkland and Evans (1981) argued that evaporites overlie or seal carbonates containing an estimated 50 % of the world’s known total petroleum reserve. Of the world’s 25 largest gas fields, nine are sealed by evaporites and sixteen by shales and hydrates. Sixteen are capped by Mesozoic seals, 7 by Palaeozoic seals, and only two by Tertiary seals. Fourteen are in the 1,000–2,000 m seal-depth interval, nine in the 2,000–3,000 m interval; and two in the 0–1,000 m interval. As one would expect, more gas fields than oilfields are sealed by Palaeozoic caprocks, and more oilfields than gas fields are sealed by Tertiary caprocks. Surprisingly, the seal depth intervals for the 25 largest oil and gas fields do not differ significantly. However, Grunau argues many “supergiant” gas accumulations below depths of 3,000 m and have either not yet been discovered, or have not yet been put in production (e.g. much of the Khuff-hosted gas in North Dome in the Middle East).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    A giant oil field contains more than 0.5 × 109 barrels of expected ultimate recoverable oil, while a supergiant contains more than 5 × 109 barrels (Fitzgerald 1980). The equivalent separation between giant and supergiant gas fields is 0.5 × 109 and 5 × 109 BOE, respectively.

    BOE is barrels of oil equivalent on a BTU basis; 1 barrel of oil = 5.61 ft3, so the respective cutoffs for giant and super giant gas fields are 3 and 30 tcf (trillion cubic feet).

  2. 2.

    1P reserves = proven reserves (both proved developed reserves + proved undeveloped reserves).

    2P reserves = 1P (proven reserves) + probable reserves; hence proved

    AND probable.

    3P reserves = the sum of 2P (proven reserves + probable reserves) + possible reserves; hence, all 3Ps are proven AND probable AND possible.

  3. 3.

    Name changed to honour former Brazilian President, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva.

  4. 4.

    Entry pressure is the minimum capillary pressure required to force oil or gas from one water-filled pore to the next.

  5. 5.

    Gas or methane hydrates (more precisely called clathrates) are the solid form of mostly methane trapped in a crystalline framework of ice and are only found in low temperature seafloor or permafrost conditions. They seal onshore supergiant fields of west Siberia and Timan- Pechora basins of Russia and occur also as solid bacterial-associated products in the deep seafloor, where temperatures are low and water depths exceed 500 m. Seafloor clathrates are thought to contain more than 20 quadrillion cubic metres of methane. In oil equivalents this is around 15 trillion m3 (116 trillion barrels), more than 30 times the likely volume of oil and gas reserves (Hunt 1996).

  6. 6.

    Synonymous with minimum displacement pressure.

  7. 7.

    In most oilfield applications the millidarcy (md), which is 0.001 darcies, is used as a measure of permeability. Permeability is fundamentally a L2 unit. In SI it is expressed in μm2, which is 10−12 m2. In conventional metric use it is expressed in m2 (metres squared) or cm2. The conversion between oilfield and SI units is 1 darcy = 9.869 × 10−13 m2. In practical terms, 1 md and 1 μm2 are essentially equivalent, while in terms of hydraulic conductivity, 1 darcy = 10−5 m/s.

  8. 8.

    The Tiber oilfield was drilled in 2009 by the semi-submersible oil rig Deepwater Horizon. The same rig was destroyed as the result of an explosion 7 months after the discovery at Tiber, while drilling its next well at Macondo in April 2010.

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Warren, J.K. (2016). Hydrocarbons and Evaporites. In: Evaporites. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13512-0_10

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