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Introduction

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Solutions for Sustainability

Part of the book series: European Yearbook of International Economic Law ((Spec. Issue))

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Abstract

Sustainability is a necessity for the twenty-first century that has an inter-generational dimension. Given the urgency of the issue, scientists have proposed concepts such as “planetary boundaries” to define a “safe operating space for humanity” to continue to thrive for years to come. The concept of planetary boundaries is based on scientific research that indicates that, since the Industrial Revolution at the end of the eighteenth century and beginning of the nineteenth century, human activity has gradually become the main driver of global environmental degradation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    In the case of climate change and energy, the indicators of sustainability are greenhouse gas emissions, primary energy consumption, and the share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption. For further details on sustainability in the context of economic performance and social progress, see J. Stiglitz, A. Sen and J.-P. Fitoussi, “Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress,” (2008) available at https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/118025/118123/Fitoussi+Commission+report.

  2. 2.

    Jake Sullivan, US national security advisor to US Vice President Biden, once famously said: “Between fatalism and complacency lies urgency.” See https://twitter.com/JesseJenkins/status/1062448890543267841.

  3. 3.

    Rockström et al. (2009), p. 33.

  4. 4.

    Planetary Boundaries Research, Stockholm Resilience Centre, http://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries.html [https://perma.cc/HME9-TBNR].

  5. 5.

    Rockström et al. (2009), p. 33.

  6. 6.

    Formally known as the World Commission on Environment and Development, the Brundtland Commission was created to persuade countries to aim at sustainable development. World Comm’n on Env’t & Dev., Our Common Future, Annex 2, U.N. Doc. A/42/427 (1987), available at http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf [https://perma.cc/KPK5-CH3Y].

  7. 7.

    Id. at 1.

  8. 8.

    Id. at Overview, ¶ 8.

  9. 9.

    Id. pt. 1, chp. 1, ¶ 42.

  10. 10.

    Id. pt. 1, chp. 2, ¶ 10.

  11. 11.

    Id. pt. 1, chp. 2, ¶ 76. For millennials, values are important. For instance, if they recycle at home, they also want to own or work for firms that recycle.

  12. 12.

    See generally Prashant V. Kamat, Energy Challenge and Nanotechnology, Presentation, 1, http://www3.nd.edu/~pkamat/pdf/energy.pdf (referencing humanity’s top ten problems for the next 50 years, as identified by Richard Smalley of Rice University) [https://perma.cc/3SSK-NV5E].

  13. 13.

    Id.

  14. 14.

    Id.

  15. 15.

    See Boris Johnson, U.K. Sec’y of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Aff., Speech at Chatham House: Global Britain: UK Foreign Policy in the Era of Brexit, 8 (Dec. 2, 2016), https://www.chathamhouse.org/event/global-britain-uk-foreign-policy-era-brexit [https://perma.cc/HH5K-XSVB].

  16. 16.

    According to Meghan O’Sullivan, there are ways to see energy: (1) as a driver of domestic development; (2) a shaper of grand strategy; and (3) a determinant of international affairs. Lecture at Harvard University, 3 October 2018.

  17. 17.

    It is interesting to see the conceptual evolution of this phenomenon of energy actors over time: Initially, one referred to an energy user, then consumer, then customer, and now prosumer. For an analysis of prosumers, see Leal-Arcas et al. (2017), pp. 139–172.

  18. 18.

    A terminological clarification needs to be made: technically speaking, no energy is sustainable because it disappears as it is consumed; however, for the purposes of this book, we are using the terms ‘sustainable energy’ and ‘energy for sustainable development’ interchangeably, bearing in mind that the ultimate goal is energy for sustainable development.

  19. 19.

    See Energy Access Database, Int’l Energy Agency, https://www.iea.org/energyaccess/database/.

  20. 20.

    That said, today, the energy that crosses borders is mostly fossil fuel. See generally Leal-Arcas et al. (2016).

  21. 21.

    Leal-Arcas (2016).

  22. 22.

    In the view of the European Commission, there are three main goals in the clean energy transition: putting energy efficiency first, achieving global leadership in renewable energies, and providing a fair deal for consumers. See https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/news/commission-proposes-new-rules-consumer-centred-clean-energy-transition.

  23. 23.

    See for instance the growing pressure Cambridge University faced in October 2017 to abandon its investments in fossil fuels because they are incompatible with the Paris Climate Agreement. See A. Mooney, “Pressure grows on £6.3bn Cambridge University fund to drop fossil fuels,” Financial Times, 8 October 2017.

  24. 24.

    Nevertheless, one should acknowledge that the abundance of natural gas is transforming the natural-gas market. Prior to 2000, almost all natural gas was either consumed where it was produced or was traded to other countries via pipelines. Growth in supplies and in liquefied natural gas (LNG) is driving growth in gas trade in the world. An increasing number of countries has been importing LNG since 2000, resulting in more fluid, more integrated markets. See lecture by Megan O’Sullivan at Harvard University, 3 October 2018.

  25. 25.

    Massai (2011).

  26. 26.

    100% Renewable Energy: At What Cost?, The Economist, July 15, 2017, at 58–59. This global concern about environmental challenges is such that there is a United Nations process that could lead to negotiations for an international environmental treaty. See International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, “Efforts get underway to consider potential Global Environment Treaty negotiations,” Bridges, Vol. 22, No. 29, 13 September 2018.

  27. 27.

    Renewable-Energy Targets: A Green Red Herring, The Economist, July 15, 2017, at 10.

  28. 28.

    For further details, see Leal-Arcas (2018a), pp. 129–142.

  29. 29.

    See for instance M. O’Sullivan et al., (eds.) “The Geopolitics of Renewable Energy,” Harvard Kennedy School Faculty Research Working Paper Series, Working Paper 17-027, June 2017, available at https://www.hks.harvard.edu/publications/geopolitics-renewable-energy. There are several mechanisms where renewables could shape geopolitics: critical materials supply chains, technology and finance, new resource curse, electric grids, reduced oil and gas demand, avoided climate change, and sustainable access to energy. Ibid.

  30. 30.

    Ibid.

  31. 31.

    Renewable-Energy Targets: A Green Red Herring, The Economist, July 15, 2017, at 10. As an example of energy inefficiency, think for instance of air-conditioning in public buses in the US, where, at times, the air-conditioning cannot be turned off, or even down, even when it is unnecessarily cold inside the bus.

  32. 32.

    Leal-Arcas et al. (2016), p. 40.

  33. 33.

    See for instance Lilliston, B. “The climate cost of free trade: How the TPP and trade deals undermine the Paris climate agreement,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, 2016.

  34. 34.

    Marin Quemada et al. (2011); Cottier and Delimatsis (2011); Leal-Arcas and Filis (2013), pp. 1–58, Oxford University Press; Sovacool (2011a), pp. 3832–3844.

  35. 35.

    There are any number of books on the different aspects of globalization. There are many books on the challenges facing the global economy and those facing the global environment. There are only a few books that attempt to address the complex interrelationships between the global economy and the global environment. There are no books that do so in the context of making and re-making international economic and environmental law, and of linking international economic and environmental institutions in the broader context of sustainability.See, for instance, the following books: Hufbauer and Suominen (2010), Victor (2011) and Sachs (2015). These books devote only a few pages to international economic and environmental rules and to the possible clashes between them. None of them addresses the need to erase the lines dividing global economic and environmental governance. None of them offers specific proposals for a future global framework for providing such governance from the bottom up. Moreover, none of these books views these issues through the prism of international and EU law and policy.

  36. 36.

    Selivanova (2011); UN Conference on Trade and Development (2000); Farah and Cima (2015); Ostry (2010); Sakmar (2008), p. 96.

  37. 37.

    Dupont and Oberthuer (2015), Goldthau and Sitter (2015) and Talus (2013).

  38. 38.

    Baumann (2010). The rationale for energy policy is mainly pollution externalities from fossil fuel combustion and in the production of energy, energy security, imperfect competition, government finance, and redistribution of wealth.

  39. 39.

    Shih (2009), p. 433.

  40. 40.

    Ghosh (2011); World Energy Council, “World Energy Perspectives – Non-Tariff Measures: Next Steps For Catalysing The Low-Carbon Economy,” 2016, available at https://www.worldenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Full-report__Non-tariff-measures_next-steps-for-catalysing-the-low-carbon-economy..pdf.

  41. 41.

    Yafimava (2011), Pogoretskyy (2017) and Azaria (2015).

  42. 42.

    Esty (1994); Van de Graaf (2013a), p. 14; Guruswamy (1991), p. 209; Brown Weiss (2016), pp. 367–369; Wettestad (2009), pp. 393–408; Yamarik and Ghosh (2006), p. 15; Leal-Arcas (2014), pp. 11–54; Barrett S, ‘Climate Change and International Trade: Lessons on their Linkage from International Environmental Agreements’ (Geneva, 2010), available at https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/reser_e/climate_jun10_e/background_paper6_e.pdf.

  43. 43.

    Pauwelyn (2010).

  44. 44.

    Barton et al. (2004); McElroy (2009); Goldemberg (2012); Van de Graaf (2013b); Florini and Sovacool (2011), p. 57; Smith and Htoo (2008), p. 217.

  45. 45.

    Leal-Arcas et al. (2014), Johnston and Block (2012) and Sovacool (2011b).

  46. 46.

    Birol (2012), p. 184; Sovacool and Florini (2012); Cherp et al. (2011), p. 75; Dubash and Florini (2011), p. 6.

  47. 47.

    See, e.g., Marketos (2008), Pirani (2009), Andrews-Speed (2012), Tunsjø (2013), Bedeski and Swanström (2012), Fingar (2016), Patnaik (2016), Malashenko (2013), Cooley (2012), Kavalski (2010) and Jonson (2006).

  48. 48.

    Maniruzzaman (2002), p. 1061; Kalicki and Goldwin (2013); Goldthau and Sitter (2015). See also the contributions in Barton et al. (2004).

  49. 49.

    Glachant et al. (2012a, b).

  50. 50.

    de Jong, S. and Wouters, J. “Institutional Actors in International Energy Law,” Leuven Center for Global Governance Studies, Working Paper No. 115, July 2013.

  51. 51.

    Barton et al. (2004); Gunningham (2012), p. 119; Kuzemko (2012); Leal-Arcas (2009).

  52. 52.

    Hancher et al. (2015), Bjørnebye (2010), Grubb et al. (2008), Roggenkamp et al. (2016), Isser (2015), Talus (2013) and Finger and Künneke (2011).

  53. 53.

    Cottier and Hertig (2003), pp. 261–328; Cottier (2011), pp. 495−532.

  54. 54.

    Regional trade agreements (RTAs) and preferential trade agreements (PTAs) are used interchangeably throughout this book.

  55. 55.

    Leal-Arcas and Wilmarth (2015), pp. 92–123; Falkner and Jaspers (2012); Reuveny (2010); Eerola (2006), pp. 333–350, November; Vranes (2009); Carraro and Egenhofer (2007).

  56. 56.

    Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, A/RES/70/1, available at http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E. For further details on the SDGs, see Cutter, A. et al., “Sustainable Development Goals and Integration: Achieving a better balance between the economic, social and environmental dimensions,” Stakeholder Forum, available at http://www.stakeholderforum.org/fileadmin/files/Balancing%20the%20dimensions%20in%20the%20SDGs%20FINAL.pdf; Sachs (2016), available at http://worldhappiness.report/ed/2016/.

  57. 57.

    There is also literature on how environmental agreements can help achieve the sustainable development goals. See Balakrishna Pisupati, UNEP/DELC, ‘Role of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)’, (UNEP Division for Environmental Laws and Conventions 2016) 8.

  58. 58.

    Charnovitz (2008), pp. 249–251; Falkner and Jaspers (2012), p. 245. Also, environmental issues are starting to play a more prominent role in the WTO dispute settlement system. See for example, United States — Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline (29 April 1996) WT/DS2/AB/R; United States — Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products (12 October 1998) WT/DS58/AB/R; European Communities — Measures Affecting Asbestos and Products Containing Asbestos (12 March 2001) WT/DS135/AB/R.

  59. 59.

    Branford (2014); Mattoo, Aaditya and Subramanian, Arvind (04 May 2013) “Four changes to trade rules to facilitate climate change action,” VOX CEPR’s Policy Portal; Mavroidis and de Melo (2015), pp. 225–236.

  60. 60.

    This situation raises the question whether climate change demands a normative shift in how we think about the trade regime. For analyses, see Daly (1995), p. 313; Lilliston (2016); Kanemoto et al. (2014), pp. 52–59; Gordon, Kate and Lewis, Matthew, “It’s Time to Close the ‘Carbon Loophole’,” Wall Street Journal (13 November 2017), available at https://blogs.wsj.com/experts/2017/11/13/its-time-to-close-the-carbon-loophole/.

  61. 61.

    Leal-Arcas (2018b), pp. 1–37.

  62. 62.

    For an overview of the current legal and policy situation in EU energy, see Leal-Arcas and Wouters (2017).

  63. 63.

    SUSTANIA, “Explore 100 City Solutions for a Greener and Fairer Future”; C40 Cities. Powering Climate Action: Cities as Global Changemakers. 2015. https://issuu.com/c40cities/docs/powering_climate_action_full_report.

  64. 64.

    Dunoff and Pollack (2013) and Frodeman et al. (2010).

  65. 65.

    Moe and Midford (2014).

  66. 66.

    USAID, (2014) Encouraging Renewable Energy Development: A Handbook for International Energy Regulators.

  67. 67.

    Katzenstein and Okawara (2001), pp. 153–185; Katzenstein and Sil (2008), pp. 109–130.

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  1. Queen Mary University of London, London, UK

    Rafael Leal-Arcas

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  1. Rafael Leal-Arcas
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Leal-Arcas, R. (2019). Introduction. In: Solutions for Sustainability. European Yearbook of International Economic Law(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23933-6_1

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23933-6_1

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