Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sports Physiology and Endocrinology (Endurance vs. Resistance Exercise)

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Exercise and Human Reproduction

Abstract

Sporting performances have continued to improve ever since records have been kept. This continued ability of athletes to improve and perform at higher levels is a function of enhanced exercise training adaptation, technological developments in equipment, and improved health–medical care. The exercise training adaptations are seen as paramount in this process and represent a more clear understanding by exercise scientist of the physiology of adaptation and the exercise stimulus to bring about those adaptations. Physiologically, one system critical in the adaptation process (“plasticity”) is the endocrine system and the hormones associated with it. Hormones serve as chemical messengers to initiate and regulate key aspects of anabolism and catabolism in cells. In the context of skeletal muscle cells, this involves enhancing contractile elements as well as energy substrate mobilization–utilization capacity, all potentially leading to improved sporting performance. With this in mind, the intent of this specific chapter is to review the responses and adjustments/adaptations of the endocrine system as affected by exercise training. Specifically, the discussion is focused on this topic as it pertains to athletes who participate in sporting activities that involve training which predominantly emphasizes endurance (e.g., distance runners) versus resistance (e.g., weight lifters) training activities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Garber CE et al. American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) position stand. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: guidance for prescribing exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(7):334–1359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Joyner MJ. Physiologic limiting factors and distance running: influence of gender and age on record performances. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1993;21:103–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Joyner MJ, Coyle EF. Endurance exercise performance: the physiology of champions. J Physiol. 2008;586(1):35–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Rowell LB. Cardiovascular adjustments to thermal stress. Handbook of physiology, the cardiovascular system, peripheral circulation and organ blood flow (Suppl 8). New York: Wiley-Blackwell; 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Saltin B, Astrand PO. Maximal oxygen uptake in athletes. J Appl Physiol. 1967;23:353–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Evans WJ. Strength and power training: physiological mechanisms of adaptation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1996;24:363–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Hackney AC. Exercise as a stressor to the neuroendocrine system. Medicina (Kaunas). 2006;42(10):788–97.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Hackney AC. Stress and the neuroendocrine system: the role of exercise as a stressor and modifier of stress. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab. 2006;1(6):783–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Galbo H. Hormonal and metabolic adaptation to exercise. Stuttgart: Thieme Verlag; 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Galbo H. The hormonal response to exercise. Diabetes Metab Rev. 1986;1(4):385–408.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Kjaer M, Secher NH, Galbo H. Physical stress and catecholamine release. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1987;1(2):279–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Viru A. Plasma hormones and physical exercise. Int J Sports Med. 1992;13(3):201–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Viru A, Viru M. Biochemical monitoring of sport training. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Davies CT, Few JD. Effects of exercise on adrenocortical function. J Appl Physiol. 1973;35(6):887–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Steenberg A, Fischer CP, Keller C, Møller K, Pedersen BK. IL-6 enhances plasma IL-1ra, IL-10, and cortisol in humans. Am J Physiol (Endocrinol Metab). 2003;285(2):433–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Kuipers H, Keizer HA. Overtraining in elite athletes: review and directions for the future. Sports Med. 1988;6:79–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Kraemer WJ. Endocrine response to resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1988;20:152–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Hackney AC, Koltun KJ. The immune system and overtraining in athletes: clinical implications. Acta Clin Croat. 2012;51(4):633–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Kreider R, Fry AC, O’Toole M. Overtraining in sport: terms, definitions, and prevalence. In: Kreider R, Fry AC, O’Toole M, editors. Overtraining in sport. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Meeusen R, Duclos M, Foster C, Fry A, Gleeson M, Nieman D, Raglin J, Rietjens G, Steinacker J, Urhausen A. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the overtraining syndrome: joint consensus statement of the European College of Sport Science and the American College of Sports Medicine. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(1):186–205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Hackney AC, Battaglini C. The overtraining syndrome: neuroendocrine imbalances in athletes. Braz J Biomotricity. 2007;1(2):34–44.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Lehmann M, Foster C, Keul J. Overtraining in endurance athletes: a brief review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993;25:854–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Selye H. Stressand the general adaptation syndrome. Br Med J. 1950;1(4667):1383–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Meeusen R, Nederhof E, Buyse L, Roelands B, de Schutter G, Piacentini MF. Diagnosing overtraining in athletes using the two-bout exercise protocol. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44(9):642–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Foster C, Lehmann M. Overtraining syndrome. In: Guten GN, editor. Running injuries. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Lehmann M, Schnee W, Scheu R, Stockhausen W, Bachl N. Decreased nocturnal catecholamine excretion: parameter for an overtraining syndrome in athletes? Int J Sports Med. 1992;13:236–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Lehmann M, Baumgarte P, Wiesenack C, Seidel A, Baumann H, Fisher S, Spöri U, Gendrish G, Kaminski R, Keul J. Training-overtraining: influence of a defined increase in training volume vs. training intensity on performance catecholamines and some metabolic parameters in experienced middle- and long-distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1992;64:169–77.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Lehmann M, Foster C, Netzer N, Lormes W, Steinacker JM, Liu Y, Opitz-Gress A, Gastmann U. Physiological responses to short- and long-term overtraining in endurance athletes. In: Krieder RB, Fry AC, O’Toole ML, editors. Overtraining in sports. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Lehmann M, Gastmann U, Baur S, Liu Y, Lormes W, Opiz-Gress A, Reißnecker S, Simisch C, Steinacker JM. Selected parameters and mechanisms of peripheral and central fatigue and regeneration in overtrained athletes. In: Lehmann M, Foster C, Gastmann U, Keizer H, Steinacker JM, editors. Overload, performance and regeneration in sport. New York: Springer; 1999.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  30. Barron GL, Noakes TD, Levy W, Smith C, Millar RP. Hypothalamic dysfunction in overtrained athletes. J Clin Endorcrinol Metab. 1985;60:803–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Roberts AC, McClure RD, Weiker RI, Brooks GA. Overtraining affects male reproductive status. Fertil Steril. 1993;60:686–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Stray-Gundersen J, Videman T, Snell PG. Changes in selected objective parameters during overtraining. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986;18(Suppl): 54–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Snyder AC, Kuipers H, Cheng B, Servais R, Fransen E. Overtraining followed intensified training with normal muscle glycogen. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27:1063–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Urhausen A, Kindermann W. Monitoring of training by determination of hormone concentration in the blood. In: Liesen H, Weiß MM, Baum M, editors. Regulations und Repairmechanismen. Köln: Deutche Ärzte-Verlag; 1994. pp. 551–4.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Urhausen A, Gabriel H, Kindermann W. Blood hormones as markers training stress and overtraining. Sport Med. 1995;20:351–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Urhausen A, Gabriel HHW, Kindermann W. Impaired pituitary hormonal responses to exhaustive exercise in overtrained athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998;30:407–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Kraemer WJ, Nindl BC. Factors involved with overtraining for strength and power. In: Kreider RB, Fry AC, O’Toole ML, editors. Overtraining in sport. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 1998. pp. 69–86.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Adlercreutz H, Härkönen M, Kuoppasalmi K, Näveri H, Huthaniani I, Tikkanen H, Remems K, Dessypris A, Karvonen J. Effect of training on plasma anabolic and catabolic steroid hormones and their response during physical exercise. Int J Sports Med. 1986;7(Suppl 1):27–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Vervoorn C, Vermlust LJM, Boelens-Quist AM, Koppeschaar HPF, Erich WBM, Thijssen JHH, Vries WR. Seasonal changes in performance and free testosterone: cortisol ratio of elite female rowers. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1992;64:14–21.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Urhausen A, Kullmer T, Kindermann W. A 7-week follow-up study of the behaviour of testosterone and cortisol during the competition period in rowers. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1987;56(5):528–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Lane AR, Duke JW, Hackney AC. Influence of dietary carbohydrate intake on the free testosterone: cortisol ratio responses to short-term intensive exercise training. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010;108(6):1125–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Hug M, Mullis PE, Vogt M, Ventura N, Hoppler H. Training modalities: over-reaching and over-training in athletes, including a study of the role of hormones. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;17(2):191–209.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Fry RW, Morton AR, Garcia-Webb P, Crawford GP, Keast D. Biological responses to overload training in endurance sports. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1992;64:335–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Tanskanen MM, Uusitalo AL, Kinnunen H, Häkkinen K, Kyröläinen H, Atalay M. Association of military training with oxidative stress and overreaching. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(8):1552–1560.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Fry AC, Kraemer WJ, Ransay CT. Pituitary-adrenal-gonadal responses to high-intensity resistance exercise overtraining. J Appl Physiol. 1998;85:2352–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Keizer HA, Platen P, Kuoppeschaar H, de Vries WR, Vervoon C, Geurten P, von Kraneburg G. Blunted ß-endorphin response to corticotropin releasing hormone and exercise after exhaustive training. Int J Sports Med. 1991;12:97.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Uusitalo ALT, Huttunen P, Hanin Y, Uusitalo AJ, Rusko HK. Hormonal responses to endurance training and overtraining in female athletes. Clin J Sports Med. 1998;8:178–86.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Hooper S, MacKinnon LT, Gordon RD, Bachmann AW. Hormonal responses of elite swimmers to overtraining. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993;25:741–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Jürimäe J, Maestu J, Jürimäe T, Mangus B, von Duvillard S. Peripheral signals of energy homeostasis as possible markers of training stress in athletes: a review. Metabolism. 2011;60:335–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Purvis D, Gonsalves S, Deuster P. Physiological and psychological fatigue in extreme conditions: overtraining and elite athletes. Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;2:442–50.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Hackney AC. Hormonal changes at rest in over-trained endurance athletes. Biol Sport. 1991;8(2):49–56.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Meeusen R, Piacentini MF, Busschaert B, Buyse L, De Schutter G, Stray-Gundersen J. Hormonal responses in athletes: the use of a two bout exercise protocol to detect subtle differences in (over)training status. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2004;91(2–3):140–146.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. World Anti-Doping Agency. The 2013 prohibited list: international standard. The world anti-doping code. September 10 2012. 2014. http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/WorldAnti-DopingProgram/WADP-Prohibited-list/2013/WADA-Prohibited-List-2013-EN.pdf. Accessed 30 July 2014.

  54. Barroso O, Mazzoni I, Rabin O. Hormone abuse in sports: the antidoping perspective. Asian J Androl. 2008;10(3):391–402.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Bahrke MS, Yesalis CE. Abuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids and related substances in sport and exercise. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2004;4:614–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Hartgens F, Kuipers H. Effects of androgenic-anabolic steroids in athletes. Sports Med. 2004;34(8):513–554.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Bhasin S, Woodhouse L, Casaburi R, Singh AB, Bhasin D, Berman N, Chen X, Yarasheski KE, Magliano L, Dzekov C, Dzekov J, Bross R, Phillips J, Sinha-Hikim I, Shen R, Storer TW. Testosterone dose-response relationships in healthy young men. Am J Physiol (Endocrinol Metab). 2001;281:E1172–81.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Alen M, Rahkila P, Reinila M, Vihko. Androgenic-anabolic steroid effects on serum thyroid, pituitary and steroid hormones in athletes. Am J Sports Med. 1987;15:357–61.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Ruokonen A, Alen M, Bolton N, Vihko R. Response of serum testosterone and its precursor steroids, SHBG and CBG to anabolic steroid and testosterone self-administration in man. J Steroid Biochem. 1985;23:33–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Matsumine H, Hirato K, Ynaihara T, Tamada T, Yoshida M. Aromatization by skeletal muscle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986;63:717–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Alen M, Reinilä M, Vihko R. Response of serum hormones to androgen administration in power athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1985;17(3):354.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Cohen JC, Hickman R. Insulin resistance and diminished glucose tolerance in powerlifters ingesting anabolic steroids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1987;64:960–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Shahidi NT. A review of the chemistry, biological action, and clinical applications of anabolic-androgenic steroids. Clin Ther. 2001;23:1355–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Nikolopoulos DD, Spiliopoulou C, Theocharis SE. Doping and musculoskeletal system: short-term and long-lasting effects of doping agents. Fund Clin Pharmacol. 2001;25(5):535–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Hackney AC, Dobridge J. Exercise and male hypogonadism: testosterone, the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis and physical exercise. In: Winter S, editor. Male hypogonadal disorders: contemporary endocrinology series. New York: Humana Publishing; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  66. John MJ, Jaison V, Jain K, Kakkar N, Jacob JJ. Erythropoietin use and abuse. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2012;16(2):220–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Markianos M, Kosmidis ML, Sfagos C. Reductions in plasma prolactin during acute erythropoietin administration. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2006;3:355–8.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Lissoni P, Perego M, Veronese E, Fumagalli G, Brivio F, Colciago M, Messina G, Rovelli F, Brivio R, Gardani G. Endocrine effects of erythropoietin in cancer patients. Hematology. 2004; 9(5–6): 363–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Holt RI, Sönksen PH. Growth hormone, IGF-I and insulin and their abuse in sport. Br J Pharmacol. 2008;154(3):542–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Mantzoros CS, Magkos F, Brinkoetter M, Sienkiewicz E, Dardeno TA, Kim SY, Hamnvik OP, Koniaris A. Leptin in human physiology and pathophysiology. Am J Physiol (Endocrinol Metab). 2011; 301(4): E567–84.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Lacquemant C, Vasseur F, Leprete F, Froguel P. Adipocytokines, obesity and development of type 2 diabetes. Med Sci (Paris). 2003;19(8–9):809–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Widmaier EP. Metabolic feedback in mammalian endocrine systems. Horm Metab Res. 1992;24(4):147–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Viru A. The mechanism of training effects: a hypothesis. Int J Sports Med. 1985;5(5):219–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. West DW, Phillips SM. Anabolic processes in human skeletal muscle: restoring the identities of growth hormone and testosterone. Phys Sportsmed. 2010;38(3):97–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Vingren JL, Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA, Anderson JM, Volek JS, Maresh CM. Testosterone physiology in resistance exercise and training: the up-stream regulatory elements. Sports Med. 2010;40(12):1037–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Fry AC, Kraemer WJ. Resistance exercise overtraining and overreaching: neuroendocrine responses. Sports Med. 1997;23(2):106–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Hackney AC, Viru A. Research methodology: issues with endocrinological measurements in exercise science and sport medicine. J Athl Train. 2008;43(6):631–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Exercise & Sport Science, Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina, 203 Fetzer Hall, South Rd., 27599, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    Anthony C. Hackney PhD, DSc

  2. Faculty of Exercise and Sport Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia

    Mehis Viru PhD

Authors
  1. Anthony C. Hackney PhD, DSc
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mehis Viru PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anthony C. Hackney PhD, DSc .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Morphological Sciences, University of Cordoba Department of Morphological Sciences, Cordoba, Spain

    Diana Vaamonde

  2. Division of Medical Physiology, Stellenbosch University , Tygerberg, South Africa

    Stefan S du Plessis

  3. Cleveland Clinic Foundation, American Centre for Reproductive Medicin Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA

    Ashok Agarwal

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hackney, A., Viru, M. (2016). Sports Physiology and Endocrinology (Endurance vs. Resistance Exercise). In: Vaamonde, D., du Plessis, S., Agarwal, A. (eds) Exercise and Human Reproduction. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3402-7_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3402-7_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-3400-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-3402-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation