Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Acute and Chronic Hepatitis B

  • Chapter
Atlas of the Liver

Part of the book series: Atlas of Diseases

  • 430 Accesses

Abstract

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a serious worldwide public health problem with an estimated 300 to 350 million people, approximately 5% of the world population, exhibiting evidence of chronic infection [1]. Using two large databases to measure the health burden of HBV in the United States (US), Kim et al. [2] found that age-adjusted mortality had increased from 0.1 per 100,000 to 0.4 per 100,000 between the years 1979 and 1998. Newly acquired HBV infection in the United States occurred in approximately 78,000 individuals in the year 2001, a significant decrease from the 300,000 cases per annum reported in the mid-1980s [2,3]. The greatest decline occurred among persons 10 to 19 years old (72.5%), followed by those 20 to 29 years old (70.6%) and 30 to 39 years old (53.4%) (P < 0.001 for each age group, 1982 to 1988 vs 1994 to 1998) [4]. In 2001, HBV infection accounted for 40% of the acute viral hepatitis cases reported in the United States [3], and approximately 4.9% of the US population had been infected with HBV, with an estimated 1 to 1.25 million carriers [3].

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Lok AS, McMahon BJ: AASLD guideline: chronic hepatitis B: Part 1. Hepatology 2001, 34:1225–1239.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Kim WR, Ishitani MB, Dickson ER, et al.: Rising burden of hepatitis B in the United States: Should the other virus be forgotten [abstract]? Hepatology 2000, 36:222A.

    Google Scholar 

  3. CDC: Viral hepatitis surveillance: disease burden from hepatitis A, B and C in the United States, 2000–2001. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/hepatitis/resurces/dz_burden02.htm

  4. Goldstein ST, Alter MJ: Incidence and risk factors for acute hepatitis B in the United States, 1982–1998: implications for vaccination programs.J Infect Dis 2002, 185:713–719.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Miller RH: Comparative molecular biology of the hepatitis viruses. Semin Liver Dis 1991, 11:113–120.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Alberti A, Trevisan A, Fattovich G, Realdi G: The role of hepatitis B virus replication and hepatocyte membrane expression in the pathogenesis of HBV-related hepatic damage. In Advances in Hepatitis Research. Edited by Chisari FV. New York: Masson; 1984:134–143.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Liaw YF, Tsai SL, Sheen IS, et al.: Clinical and virological course of chronic hepatitis B virus infection with hepatitis C and D virus markers. Am J Gastroenterol 1998, 93:354–359.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Lok ASF, Conjeevaram HS: Schiffs Diseases of the Liver, edn 8. Edited by Schiff ER, Sorrell MF, Maddrey WF. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 2002:763–806.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Burk RD, Hwang LY, Ho GY, et al.: Outcome of perinatnal hepatitis B virus exposure is dependent on maternal virus load.J Infect Dis 1994, 170:1418–1423.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. McMahon BJ, Alward WLM, Hall DB, et al.: Acute hepatitis B virus infection: relation of age to the clinical expression of disease and subsequent development of the carrier state.J Infect Dis 1985, 151:599–603.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Lok ASF: Natural history and control of perinatally acquired hepatitis B virus infection. Dig Dis 1992, 10:46–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Blanpain C, Knoop C, Delforge ML, et al.: Reactivation of hepatitis B after transplantation in patients with pre-existing anti-hepatitis B surface antigen antibodies. Transplantation 1998; 66:883–886.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Lau JYN, Lai CL, Lin HJ, et al.: Fatal reactivation of chronic hepatitis B virus infection following withdrawal of chemotherapy in lymphoma patients. Q J Med 1989, 73:911–917.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Fattovich G. Natural history and prognosis of hepatitis B. Semin Liver Dis 2003, 23: 47–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Peters M: Mechanisms of action of interferons. Semin Liver Dis 1989, 9:235–239.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Peters M: Immunological aspects of antiviral therapy. Springer Semin Immunopathol 1990, 12:47–56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Wong DKH, Cheung AM, O’Rourke K, et al.: Effect of alfa-interferon treatment in patients with hepatitis Be antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 1993, 119:312–323.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Lai CL, Chien RN, Leung NWY, et al.:A one-year trial of lamivudine for chronic hepatitis B. Asia Hepatitis Lamivudine Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998, 339:61–68.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Marcellin P, Chang TT, Lim SG, et al.: Adefovir dipivoxil for the treatment of hepatitis Be antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B. N Engl JMed 2003, 348:808–816.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Hadziyannis SJ, Tassopoulos NC, Heathcote EJ, et al.: Adefovir dipivoxil for the treatment of hepatitis Be antigen-negative chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:800–807.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Locarnini S, McMillan J, Bartholomeusz A: The hepatitis B virus and common mutants. Semin Liver Dis 2003, 23:5–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Tiollais P, Buendia MA: Hepatitis B virus. Sci Am 1991, 264:116–123.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Sumi H, Yokosuka O, Seki N, et al.: Influence of hepatitis B virus genotypes on the progression of chronic type B liver disease. Hepatology 2003, 37:19–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Chu CJ, Lok ASF: Clinical significance of hepatitis B virus genotypes. Hepatology 2002, 35:1274–1276.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Sanchez-Tapias J, Costa J, Mas A, et al.: Influence of hepatitis B virus genotypes on the long-term outcome of chronic hepatitis B in Western patients. Gastroenterology 2002, 123:1848–1856.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Ganam D, Schneider R, et al. Hepadnaviridae: the viruses and their replication. In Field’s Virology. Edited by Knipe DM, Howley PM. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 2001:2923–2970.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Kann M, Gerlich W: Hepadnaviridae: structure and molecular virology. In Viral Hepatitis. Edited by Zuckerman A, Thomas H. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1998:77–105.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Yen TSB: Hepadnaviral X protein: review of recent progress.J Biomed Sci 1996, 3:20–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Lara-Pezzi E, Majano PL, Gomez-Gonzalo M, et al.: The hepatitis B virus X protein up-regulates tumor necrosis factor alpha gene expression in hepatocytes. Hepatology 1998, 28:1013–1021.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Henkler F, Koshy R: Hepatitis B virus transcriptional activators: mechanism and possible role in oncogenesis.J Viral Hepat 1996, 3:109–121.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Ornata M, Ehata T, Yokosuka O, et al.: Mutations in the precore region of hepatitis B virus DNA in patients with fulminant and severe hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1991, 324:1699–1704.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Hadziyannis SJ: Hepatitis Be antigen-negative chronic hepatitis B: from clinical recognition to pathogenesis and treatment. Viral Hep Rev 1995, 1:7–36.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Okamato H, Yotsumoto S, Akahane Y, et al.: Hepatitis B virus with precore region defects prevail in persistently infected hosts always with seroconversion to the antibody against e antigen.J Virol 1990, 64:1298–1303.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Brown JL, Carman WF, Thomas HC: The clinical significance of molecular variation within the hepatitis B virus genome. Hepatology 1992, 15:144–148.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Hamasaki K, Nakata K, Nagayama Y, et al.: Changes in the prevalence of HBeAg-negative mutant hepatitis B virus during the course of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 1994, 20:8–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Laras A, Koskinas J, Avgidis K, et al.: Incidence and clinical significance of hepatitis B virus precore gene translation initiation mutations in e antigen-negative patients.J Viral Hepat 1998, 5:241–248.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Theilmann L, Goeser T: Interactions of hepatitis B virus with hepatocytes: mechanism and clinical relevance. Hepatogastroenterology 1991,38:10–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Treichel U, Meyer zum Buschenfelde K-H, Dienes H-P, Gerken G: Receptor-mediated entry of hepatitis B virus particles into liver cells. Arch Virol 1997, 142:493–498.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Pontisso P, Petit M-A, Bankowski MJ, et al.: Human liver plasma membranes contain receptors for the hepatitis B virus pre-Sl region and via polymerized human serum albumin for the pre-S2 region.J Virol 1989, 63:1981–1988.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. DeMeyer S, Gong ZJ, Suwandhi W, et al.: Organ and species specificity of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection: a review of literature with a special reference to preferential attachment of HBV to human hepatocytes.J Viral Hepat 1997, 4:145–153.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Gong ZJ, DeMeyer S, VanPelt J, et al.: Transfection of a rat hepatoma cell line with a construct expressing human liver annexin V confers susceptibility to hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology 1999, 29:576–584.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Neurath AR, Strick N, Li Y-Y: Cells transfected with human interleukin 6 cDNA acquire binding sites for the hepatitis B virus envelope protein.J Exp Med 1992, 176:1561–1569.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Franco A, Paroli M, Testa U, et al.: Transferrin receptor mediates uptake and presentation of hepatitis B envelope antigen by T lymphocytes.J Exp Med 1992, 175:1195–1205.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Mehdi H, Yang X, Peebles ME: An altered form of apolipoprotein H binds hepatitis B virus surface antigen most efficiently. Virology 1996, 217:58–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Mills CT, Lee E, Perrillo R: Relationship between histology, aminotransferase levels, and viral replication in chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology 1990, 99:519–524.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Rehermann B: Immune responses in hepatitis B virus infection. Semin Liver Dis 2003, 23: 21–37.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Foster GR, Thomas HC: Recent advances in the molecular biology of hepatitis B virus: mutant virus and the host response. Gut 1993, 34:1–3.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Chisari FV: Cytotoxic T cells and viral hepatitis.J Clin Invest 1997, 99:1472–1477.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Rehermann B, Ferrari C, Pasquinelli C, et al.: The hepatitis B virus persists for decades after recovery from acute viral hepatitis despite active maintenance of a cytotoxic T lymphocyte response. Nat Med 1996,2:1104–1108.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Guidotti LG, Ishikawa T, Hobbs MV, et al.: Intracellular inactivation of the hepatitis B virus by cytotoxic T lymphocyte. Immunity 1996, 4:25–36.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Van Hecke E, Paradijs J, Molitor C, et al.: Hepatitis B virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in patients with acute and chronic hepatitis B virus infection.J Hepatol 1994, 20:514–523.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Ferrari C, Bertoletti A, Penna A, et al.: Identification of immunodominant T cell epitopes of the hepatitis B virus nucleocapsid antigen.J Clin Invest 1991, 88:214–222.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Moriyama T, Guilhot S, Klopchin K, et al.: Immunobiology and pathogenesis of hepatocellular injury in hepatitis B virus transgenic mice. Science 1990, 248:361–364.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Missale G, Brems JJ, Takiff H, et al.: Human leukocyte antigen class I-independent pathways may contribute to hepatitis B virus-induced liver disease after liver transplantation. Hematology 1993, 18:491–496.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Milich DR, McLachlan A, Thornton GB, et al.: Antibody production to the nucleocapsid and envelope of the hepatitis B virus primed by a single synthetic T cell site. Nature 1987, 329:547–549.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Pignatelli M, Waters J, Brown D, et al.: MHC class I antigens on the hepatocyte membrane during recovery from acute hepatitis B virus infection and during interferon therapy in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology 1986, 6:349–353.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. McQuillan GM, Alter MJ, Everhart JE: Viral hepatitis. In Digestive Diseases in the United States: Epidemiology and Impact. Edited by Everhart JE. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, US Government Printing Office; 1994:125–156.

    Google Scholar 

  58. EASL International Consensus Conference on hepatitis B. J Hepatol 2003, 38: 533–540.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Peters M, Vierling J, Gershwin ME, et al.: Immunology and the liver. Hepatology 1991, 13:977–994.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Hoofnagle JH, Schafer DF: Serologic markers of hepatitis B virus infection. Semin Liver Dis 1986, 6:1–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Desmet VJ, Gerber M, Hoofnagle JH, et al.: Classification of chronic hepatitis: diagnosis, grading and staging. Hepatology 1994, 19:1513–1520.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Sherlock S: Diseases of the Liver and Biliary System. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Seeff LB, Koff RS: Evolving concepts of the clinical and serologic consequences of hepatitis B infection. Semin Liver Dis 1986, 6:11–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Koff RS: Viral hepatitis. In Diseases of the Liver. Edited by Schiff L, Schiff ER. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott; 1993:492–577.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Chalmers TC, Eckhardt RD, Reynolds WE, et al.: The treatment of acute infectious hepatitis: controlled studies of the effects of diet, rest, and physical reconditioning on the acute course of the disease and on the incidence of relapses and residual abnormalities.J Clin Invest 1955, 34:1163–1235.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Czaja AJ: Extrahepatic immunological features of chronic viral hepatitis. Dig Dis 1997, 15:125–144.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Hoofnagle JH: Therapy of viral hepatitis. Digestion 1998, 59:563–578.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Jeffers J, Hasan F, deMedina M, et al.: Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus among patients with cryptogenic chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis. Hepatology 1992, 15:187–190.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA, Santrach PJ, et al.: The nature and prognosis of severe cryptogenic chronic active hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1993, 104:1755–1761.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Hoofnagle JH, Seeff LB: Natural history of chronic type B hepatitis. In Progress in Liver Diseases. Edited by Popper H, Schaffner F. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1982:469–479.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Ikeda A, Susuki Y: Disease progression and hepatocellular carcinogenesis in patients with chronic viral hepatitis: a prospective observation in 2215 patients.J Hepatol 1998, 28:930–938.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Chu C-M, Liaw Y-F: Intrahepatic distribution of hepatitis B surface and core antigens in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Gastroenterology 1987, 92:220–225.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Knodell RG, Ishak KG, Black WC, et al.: Formulation and application of a numerical scoring system for assessing histological activity in asymptomatic chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 1981, 1:431–435.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Scheuer PJ: Classification of chronic viral hepatitis: a need for reassessment.J Hepatol 1991, 13:372–374.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Perrillo RP: Acute flares in chronic hepatitis B: the natural and unnatural history of an immunologically mediated liver disease. Gastroenterology 2001, 120:1009–1022.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Fattovich G: Natural history and prognosis of hepatitis B. Semin Liver Dis 2003, 23:47–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Shafritz DA, Shouval D, Sherman HI, et al.: Integration of hepatitis B virus DNA into the genome of liver cells in chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma: studies in percutaneous liver biopsies and postmortem tissue specimens. N Engl J Med 1981, 305:1067–1073.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Yu MW, Hsu FC, Sheen IS, et al.: Prospective study of hepatocellular carcinoma and liver cirrhosis in asymptomatic chronic hepatitis B virus carriers. Am Epidemiol 1997, 145:1039–1047.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Liaw YF, Lin DY, Chen TJ, et al.: Natural course after the development of cirrhosis in patients with chronic type B hepatitis: a prospective study. Liver 1989, 9:235–241.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Fattovich G, Brollo L, Giustina G, et al.: Natural history and prognostic factors for chronic hepatitis type B. Gut 1991, 32:294–298.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Scullard GH, Smith CI, Merigan TC, et al.: Effects of immunosuppressive therapy on viral markers in chronic active hepatitis B. Gastroenterology 1981, 81:987–991.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Rakela J, Redecker AG, Weliky B: Effect of short-term prednisone in chronic type B hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1983, 84:956–960.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Dusheiko GM: Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with chronic viral hepatitis. Br Med Bull 1990, 46:492–511.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Rogler CE, Sherman M, Su CY, et al.: Deletion in chromosome IIP associated with a hepatitis B integration site in hepatocellular carcinoma. Science 1985, 230:319–322.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Yang DY, Schirmacher P, Held W, et al.: Growth factors, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and carcinogenic mechanisms in the liver. In Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease. Edited by Hollinger FB, Lemon SM, Margolis HS. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1991:547–556.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Fattovich G, Giustina G, Schalm SW, et al.: Occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma and decompensation in Western European patients with cirrhosis type B. Hepatology 1995, 21:77–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Yang HI, Lu SN, Liaw YF, et al.: Hepatitis B e antigen and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med 2002, 347:168–174.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Fong T-L, DiBisceglie AM, Gerber MA, et al.: Persistence of hepatitis B virus DNA in the liver after loss of HBsAg in chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 1993, 18:1313–1318.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Kuhns M, McNamara A, Mason A, et al.: Serum and liver hepatitis B virus DNA in chronic hepatitis B after sustained loss of surface antigen. Gastroenterology 1992, 103:1649–1656.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Hu KQ: Occult hepatitis B virus infection and its clinical implications. J Viral Hepat 2002, 9:243–257.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Alexander GJM: Immunology of hepatitis B virus infection. Br Med Bull 1990, 46:354–367.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Abb J, Zachoval R, Eisenburg J, et al.: Production of interferon alpha and interferon gamma by peripheral blood leukocytes from patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection.J Med Virol 1985, 16:171–176.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Twu JS, Lee CH, Liu PM, et al.: Hepatitis B virus suppresses expression of human beta-interferon. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988, 85:252–256.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Shindo M, Okuno X, Matsumoto M, et al.: Serum 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase activity during interferon treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 1988, 8:366–370.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Nishiguchi S, Kuroki X, Otani S, et al.: Relationship of the effects of interferon on chronic hepatitis B and the induction of 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase. Hepatology 1989, 10:29–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Samuel CE: Antiviral actions of interferon: interferon-regulated cellular proteins and their surprisingly selective antiviral activities. Virology 1991, 183:1–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Rashidbaigi A, Langer JA, Jung V, et al.: The gene for the human immune interferon receptor is located on chromosome 6. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986, 83:384–388.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Jung V, Rashidbaigi A, Jones C, et al.: Human chromosomes 6 and 21 are required for sensitivity to human interferon gamma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987, 84:4151–4155.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Müller M, Ibelgaufts H, Kerr IM: Interferon response pathways: a paradigm for cytokine signalling? J Viral Hepat 1994, 1:87–103.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Peters M, Walling DM, Kelly K, et al.: Immunologic effects of interferon-alpha in man: treatment with human recombinant interferon-alpha suppresses in vitro immunoglobulin production in patients with chronic type B hepatitis.J Immunol 1986, 137:3147–3152.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Samuel CE: The interferon-induced protein Pl/eIF-2 a kinase. In The Interferon System: A Current Review to 1987. Edited by Baron S, Stanton G J, Fleischmann WR. Austin: Univ Texas Press; 1987:373–381.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Perrillo RP, Schiff ER, Davis GL, et al.:A randomized controlled trial of interferon alfa-2b alone and after prednisone withdrawal for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med 1990, 323:295–301.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Lok AS: Treatment of chronic hepatitis B.J Viral Hepat 1994, 1:105–124.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Alexander GJM, Brahm J, Fagan E, et al.: Loss of HBsAg with interferon therapy in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Lancet 1987, 2:66–69.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. McDonald JA, Caruso L, Karayiannis P, et al.: Diminished responsiveness of male homosexual chronic hepatitis B virus carriers with HTLV-III antibodies to recombinant interferon-alpha. Hepatology 1987, 7:719–723.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Fattovich G, Brollo L, Boscaro S, et al.: Long-term effect of low-dose recombinant interferon therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B. J Hepatol 1989,9:331–337.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Lok AS, Heathcote EJ, Hoofnagle JH: Management of hepatitis B: 2000-summary of a workshop. Gastroenterology 2001, 120:1828–1853.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Brook MG, Chan G, Yap I, et al.: Randomised controlled trial of lymphoblastoid interferon alfa in Europid men with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. BMJ 1989, 299:652–656.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Saracco G, Mazzella G, Rosina F, et al.:A controlied trial of human lymphoblastoid interferon in chronic hepatitis B in Italy. Hepatology 1989, 10:336–341.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Perrillo RP: The management of chronic hepatitis B. Am J Med 1994, 96:34S–40S.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Kassianides C, DiBisceglie AM, Hoofnagle JH, , et al.: Interferon-alpha therapy in patients with decompensated chronic type B hepatitis. In Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease. Edited by Zuckerman A. New York: Alan R. Liss; 1988:840–843.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Carreno V, Castillo I, Molina J, et al.: Long-term follow-up of hepatitis B chronic carriers who responded to interferon therapy.J Hepatol 1992, 15:102–106.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Lok ASF, Chung HT, Liu VWS, et al.: Long-term follow-up of chronic hepatitis B patients treated with interferon alfa. Gastroenterology 1993, 105:1833–1838.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Niederau C, Heintges T, Lange S, et al.: Long-term follow-up of HBeAg-positive patients treated with interferon alfa for chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med 1996, 334:1422–1427.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Lau DT-Y, Everhart J, Kleiner DE, et al.: Long-term follow-up of patients with chronic hepatitis B treated with interferon alfa. Gastroenterology 1997, 113:1660–1667.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Krogsgaard K, Thomas HC, Farrell G, et al.: The long-term effect of treatment with interferon-alpha 2a in chronic hepatitis B.J Viral Hepat 1998, 5:389–397.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Lin S-M, Sheen I-S, Chien R-N, et al.: Long-term beneficial effect of interferon therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology 1999, 29:971–975.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Kuhns M, McNamara A, Mason A, et al.: Serum and liver hepatitis B virus DNA in chronic hepatitis B after sustained loss of surface antigen. Gastroenterology 1992, 103:1649–1656.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Renault PF, Hoofnagle JH: Side effects of alpha interferon. Semin Liver Dis 1989, 9:273–277.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Cohard M, Poynard T, Mathurin P, et al.: Prednisone-interferon combination in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B: direct and indirect meta-analysis. Hepatology 1994, 20:1390–1398.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Fevery J, Elewaut A, Michielsen P, et al.: Efficacy of interferon alfa-2b with or without prednisone withdrawal in the treatment of chronic viral hepatitis B: a prospective double-blind Belgian-Dutch study.J Hepatol 1990, 11:S108–S112.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Krogsgaard K, Marcellin P, Trepo C, et al.: Prednisolone withdrawal therapy enhances the effect of human lymphoblastoid interferon in chronic hepatitis B. INTERPRED.J Hepatol 1996, 25:803–813.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Hoofnagle JH, DiBisceglie AM, Waggoner JG, et al.: Interferon alfa for patients with clinically apparent cirrhosis due to chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology 1993, 104:1116–1121.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Perrillo R, Tamburro C, Regenstein F, et al.: Low-dose, titratable interferon alfa in decompensated liver disease caused by chronic infection with hepatitis B virus. Gastroenterology 1995, 109:908–916.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Shaw T, Locarnini SA: Preclinical aspects of lamivudine and famciclovir against hepatitis B virus.J Viral Hepat 1999, 6:89–106.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Dienstag JL, Schiff ER, Wright TL, et al.: Lamivudine as initial treatment chronic hepatitis B in the United States. N Engl J Med 1999, 341:1256.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Lai CL, Chien RN, Leung NW, et al.:A one-year trial of lamivudine for chronic hepatitis B. Asia Hepatitis Lamivudine Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998, 339:61–68.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Schalm SW, Heathcote J, Cianciara J, et al.: Lamivudine and alpha interferon combination treatment of patients with chronic hepatitis B infection: a randomised trial. Gut 2000, 46:562–568.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Leung NW, Lai CL, Chang TT, et al.: Extended lamivudine treatment in patients with chronic hepatitis B enhances hepatitis Be antigen seroconversion rates: results after 3 years of therapy. Hepatology 2001, 33:1527–1532.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Leung NWY, Lai CL, Chang TT, et al.: Three-year lamivudine therapy in chronic HBV.J Hepatol 1999, 30:59S.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Dienstag J, Schiff E, Wright T, et al.: Lamivudine treatment for one year in previously untreated U.S. hepatitis B patients: histologic improvement and hepatitis BE-antigen (HBeAg) seroconversion. Gastroenterology 1998, 114:A1235.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Liaw YF, Lai CL, Leung NWY, et al.: Two-year lamivudine therapy in chronic hepatitis B infection: results of a placebo-controlled multicenter study in Asia. Gastroenterology 1998, 114:A1289.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Liaw YF, Leung NW, Chang TT, et al.: Effects of extended lamivudine therapy in Asian patients with chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology 2000, 119:172–180.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Lok AS, Hussain M, Cursano C, et al.: Evolution of hepatitis B virus polymerase gene mutations in hepatitis Be antigen-negative patients receiving lamivudine therapy. Hepatology 2000, 32:1145–1153.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Hadziyannis SJ, Papatheodoridis GV, Dimou E, et al.: Efficacy of long-term lamivudine monotherapy in patients with hepatitis Be antigen-negative chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2000, 32:847–851.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Rizzetto M, Volpes R, Smedile A: Response of pre-core mutant chronic hepatitis B infection to lamivudine.J Med Virol 2000, 61:398–402.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Perrillo RP, Wright X, Rakela J, et al.: A multicenter United States-Canadian trial to assess lamivudine monotherapy before and after liver transplantation for chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2001, 33:424–432.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Villeneuve JP, Condreay LD, Willems B, et al.: Lamivudine treatment for decompensated cirrhosis resulting from chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2000, 31:207.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Yao FY, Bass NM: Lamivudine treatment in patients with severely decompensated cirrhosis due to replicating hepatitis B infection.J Hepatol 2000, 33:301–307.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Ben-Ari Z, Zemel R, Kazetsker A, et al.: Efficacy of lamivudine in patients with hepatitis B virus precore mutant infection before and after liver transplantation. Am J Gastroenterol 1999, 94:663–667.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Schiff E, Cianciara J, Kowdley K, et al.: Durability of HBeAg seroconversion after lamivudine monotherapy in controlled phase II and III trials. Hepatology 1998, 28:163A.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Schiff E, Cianciara J, Karayalcin S, et al.: Durable HBeAg and HBsAg seroconversion after lamivudine for chronic hepatitis B [abstract],J Hepatol 2000, 32(Suppl 2):99.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Tassopoulos NC, Volpes R, Pastore G, et al.: Post lamivudine treatment follow-up of patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B.J Hepatol 1999, 30:117A.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Zeuzen S, de Man RA, Honkoop P, et al.: Dynamics of hepatitis B virus infection in vivo.J Hepatol 1997, 27:431–436.

    Google Scholar 

  145. Bartholomew MM, Jansen RW, Jeffers LJ, et al.: Hepatitis B virus resistance to lamivudine given for recurrent infection after orthotopic liver transplantation. Lancet 1997, 349:20–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Chayama K, Suzuki Y, Kobayashi M, et al.: Emergence and takeover of YMDD motif mutant hepatitis B virus during long-term lamivudine therapy and re-takeover by wild type after cessation of therapy. Hepatology 1998, 27: 1711–1716.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Atkins M, Hunt CM, Brown N, et al.: Clinical significance of YMDD mutant hepatitis B virus (HBV) in a large cohort of lamivudine-treated hepatitis B patients. Hepatology 1998, 28:319A.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Leung N, Wu PC, Tsang S, et al.: Continued histological improvement in Chinese patients with chronic hepatitis B with 2 years lamivudine. Hepatology 1998, 29:489A.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Tassopoulos NC, Volpes R, Pastore G, et al.: Efficacy of lamivudine in patients with hepatitis Be antigen-negative/hepatitis B virus DNA-positive (precore mutant) chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 1999, 29:889–896.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Hadziyannis SJ, Papatheodoridis GV, Vassilopoulos D: Treatment of HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B. Semin Liver Dis 2003, 23:81–88.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Perrillo R, Schiff E, Murray A, et al.: Adefìvir dipivoxil for the treatment of lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B mutants. Hepatology 2000, 32:129–134.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Heathcote EJ, Jeffers L, Wright T, et al.: Loss of serum HBV DNA and HBeAg and seroconversion following short-term (12 weeks) adefovir dipivoxil therapy in chronic hepatitis B: two placebo-controlled phase II studies. Hepatology 1998, 28:317A.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Perrillo R, Schiff E, Magill A, et al.: In vivo demonstration of sensitivity of YMDD variants to adefovir. Gastroenterology 1999, 116:1261A.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Gibson RJC, Murray-Lyon IM, Nelson MR, et al.: Extended treatment with adefovir dipivoxil in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology 1998, 28:491 A.

    Google Scholar 

  155. Schiff E, Lai C, Neuhaus P, et al.: Adefovir dipivoxil for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B pre and post liver transplantation with lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B virus patients [abstract], Hepatology 2002, 36:371A.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Fontana RJ: Management of patients with decompensated HBV cirrhosis. Semin Liver Dis 2003, 23:80–100.

    Google Scholar 

  157. Leung N, Gish RG, Corey L, et al.: A randomized, double-blind, comparison of 3 doses of emtricitabine (FTC) in patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) given 48 weeks of treatment (FTCB-102) [abstract]. Hepatology 2001, 34:349A.

    Google Scholar 

  158. Lai CL, Rosmawati M, Lao J, et al.: Entecavir is superior to lamivudine in reducing hepatitis B virus DNA in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection. Gastroenterology 2002, 123:1831–1838.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Marcellin P, Sereni D, Sacks S, et al.: Anti-HBV activity and tolerability of clevudine, a novel nucleoside-analogue: initial results of a phase I/II 28-day study [abstract). Hepatology 2001, 34.320A.

    Google Scholar 

  160. Benhamou Y, Tubiana R, Thibault V: Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in patients with HIV and lamuvidine-resistant hepatitis B virus. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:177–178.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Main J, Brown JL, Howells C, et al.:A double-blind, placebo-controlled study to assess the effect of famciclovir on virus replication in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection.J Viral Hepat 1996, 3:211–215.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Trepo C, Baumgarten R, Swain M, et al.: Efficacy of famciclovir (FCV) for treatment of chronic hepatitis B (CHB): results of pilot study.J Hepatol 1999, 30:138.

    Google Scholar 

  163. de Man RA, Habal F, Marcellin P, et al.:A randomized placebo-controlled study on the efficacy of 12-month famciclovir treatment in patients with chronic HBeAg-positive hepatitis.J Hepatol 1999, 30:59.

    Google Scholar 

  164. Chang TT, Leung NW-Y, Coulden S, et al.: Famciclovir (FCV) for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B (CHB): results of one-year study in Asian patients.J Hepatol 1999, 30:114.

    Google Scholar 

  165. Mutchnick MG, Lindsay KL, Schiff ER, et al.: Thymosin alphal treatment of chronic hepatitis B: results of a phase III multicenter, randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled study.J Viral Hepat 1999, 6:397–403.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Chan HL, Tang JL, Tarn W, Sung JJ: The efficacy of thymosin in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus infection: a meta-analysis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001, 15:1899–1905.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Chien R-N, Liaw Y-F, Chen T-C, et al.: Efficacy of thymosin alphal in patients with chronic hepatitis B: a randomized, controlled trial. Hepatology 1998, 27:1383–1387.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Milton G. Mutchnick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Firdous A. Siddiqui
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, USA

    Willis C. Maddrey MD, MACP (Executive Vice President for Clinical Affairs, Adelyn and Edmund M. Hoffman Distinguished Chair in Medical Science, Arnold N. and Carol S. Ablon Professor in Biomedical Sciences; Professor) (Executive Vice President for Clinical Affairs, Adelyn and Edmund M. Hoffman Distinguished Chair in Medical Science, Arnold N. and Carol S. Ablon Professor in Biomedical Sciences; Professor)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2004 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Mutchnick, M.G., Siddiqui, F.A. (2004). Acute and Chronic Hepatitis B. In: Maddrey, W.C. (eds) Atlas of the Liver. Atlas of Diseases. Current Medicine Group, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6502-4_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6502-4_4

  • Publisher Name: Current Medicine Group, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4615-6504-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-6502-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation