Abstract
The term protist was first coined by Haeckel in 1866 for diverse microorganisms including bacteria (Haeckel 1866). However, in 1925 in a paper on an amoeboid parasite of Daphnia, Chatton (1925) highlighted for the first time the fundamental difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms and the term protist to be now used to describe unicellular eukaryotes, which do not differentiate into tissues (see Adl et al. 2005).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adl, M., Simpson, A., Farmer, M.A., Andersen, R.A., Anderson, O.R., Barta, J.R., Bowser, S.S., Brugerolle, G., Fensome, R.A., Fredericq, S., James, T.Y., Karpov, S., Kugrens, P., Krug, J., Lane, C., Lewis, L., Lodge, J., Lynn, D.H., Mann, D.G., McCourt, R.M., Mendoza, L., Moestrup, O., Mozley-Standridge, S., Nerad, T., Shearer, C.A., Smirnov, A., Speigel, F.W., and Taylor, M.F.J.R. 2005. The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 52:399–451.
Adolf, J.E., Place, A.R., Stoecker, D.K., and Harding Jr., L.W. 2007a. Modulation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in mixotrophic Karlodinium Veneficum (Dinophyceae) and its prey, Storeatula major (Cryptophyceae). J. Phycol. 43:1259–1270.
Adolf, J.E., Bachvaroff, T.R., Krupatkina, D.N., and Place, A.R. 2007b. Karlotoxin mediates grazing of Oxyrrhis marina on Karlodinium veneficum strains. Harmful Algae 6:400–412.
Ahlgren, G., Lundstedt, L., Brett, M.T., and Forsberg, C. 1990. Lipid composition and food quality of some freshwater phytoplankton for cladoceran zooplankters. J. Plankton Res. 12:809–818.
Arndt, H., Dietrich, D., Auer, B., Cleven, E., Gräfenhan, T., Weitere, M., and Mylnikov, A. 2000. Functional diversity of heterotrophic flagellates in aquatic ecosystems, pp. 240–268. In B.S.C. Leadbeater and J.C. Green (eds.), The flagellates unity, diversity and evolution. Taylor & Francis, London.
Arts, M.T., Ackman, R.G., and Holub, B.G. 2001. “Essential fatty acids” in aquatic ecosystems: a crucial link between diet and human health and evolution. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58:122–137.
Avery, S.V., Lloyd, D., and Harwood, J. 1994. Changes in membrane fatty acid composition and delta 12-desaturase activity during growth of Acanthamoeba castellanii in batch culture. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 41:396–401.
Avery, S.V., Lloyd, D., and Harwood, J. 1995. Temperature dependent changes in the plasma lipid order and the phagocytotic activity of the amoeba Acanthamoeba castellanii are closely correlated. Biochem. J. 312:811–816.
Avery, S.V., Harwood, J., Rutter, A.J., Lloyd, D., and Harwood, J. 1996. Oxygen dependent low temperature composition and delta12 desaturase induction and alteration of fatty acid composition in Acanthamoeba castellanii in batch culture. Microbiology 142:2213–2221.
Azam, F., Fenchel, T., Field, J.G., Gray, J.S., Meyer-Reil, L.A., and Thingstad, F. 1983. The ecological role of water-column microbes in the sea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 10:257–263.
Bec, A., Desvilettes, C., Vera, A., Lemarchand, C., Fontvielle, D., and Bourdier, G. 2003a. Nutritional quality of a freshwater heterotrophic flagellate: trophic upgrading of its microalgal diet for Daphnia. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 32:203–207.
Bec, A., Desvilettes, C., Vera, A., Fontvielle, D., and Bourdier, G. 2003b. Nutritional value of different food sources for the bennthic daphnidae Simocephalus vetulus: role of fatty acids. Arch. Hydrobiol. 156:145–163.
Bec, A., Martin-Creuzburg, D., and Von Elert, E. 2006. Trophic upgrading of autotrophic picoplankton by the heterotrophic flagellate Paraphysomonas sp. Limnol. Oceanogr. 51:1699–1707.
Behrouzian, B., Fauconnot, L., Daligault, F., Nugier-Chauvin, C., Patin, H., and Buist, P.H. 2001. Mechanism of fatty acid desaturation in the green alga Chlorella vulgaris. Eur. J. Biochem. 268:3545–3549.
Bettarel, Y., Sime-Ngando, T., Amblard, C., and Bouvy, M. 2005. Low consumption of virus-sized particles by heterotrophic nanoflagellates in two lakes of the French Massif Central. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 39:205–209.
Bodyl, A. 2005. Do plastid-related characters support the chromalveolate hypothesis. J. Phycol. 41:712–719.
Boëchat, I.G. 2005. Biochemical composition of protists: dependence on diet and trophic mode and consequences for their nutritional quality. Ph.D. Thesis. Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin. 144 p.
Boëchat, I.G. and Adrian, R. 2005. Biochemical composition of algivorous freshwater ciliates: you are not what you eat. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 53:393–400.
Boëchat, I.G., Weithoff, G., Krüger, A., Gücker, B., and Adrian, R. 2007. A biochemical explanation for the success of mixotrophy in the flagellate Ochromonas sp.. Limnol. Oceanogr. 52:1624–1632.
Bourdier, G. and Amblard, C. 1987. Evolution de la composition en acides gras du phytoplancton lacustre du (lac Pavin). Int. Revue Ges. Hydrobiol. 11:1201–1212.
Brett, M.T. and Müller-Navarra, D.C. 1997. The role of highly unsaturated fatty acids in food web processes. Freshw Biol. 38:483–499.
Broglio, E., Jonasdottir, S.H., Calbet, A., Jakobsen, H.H., and Saiz, E. 2003. Effect of heterotrophic versus autotrophic food on feeding and reproduction of the calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa: relationship with prey fatty acid composition. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 31:267–278.
Brugerolle, G. and Müller, M. 2000. Amitochondriate flagellates, pp. 166–189. In B.S.C. Leadbeater and J.C. Green (eds.), The flagellates. unity, diversity and evolution. Taylor & Francis, London.
Burkholder, J.M. and Glasgow, H.B.J. 1997. Pfiesteria piscicida and other Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates: behavior, impacts, and environmental controls. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42:1052–1075.
Calbet, A. and Landry, M.R. 2004. Phytoplankton growth, microzooplankton grazing, and carbon cycling in marine systems. Limnol. Oceanogr. 49:51–57.
Callieri, C. and Stockner, J.G. 2002. Freshwater autotrophic picoplankton: a review. J. Limnol. 61:1–14.
Caron, D.A., Goldman, J.C., and Dennett, M.R. 1990. Carbon utilization by the omnivorous flagellate Paraphysomonas imperforata. Limnol. Oceanogr. 35:192–201.
Carrias, J.-F., Quiblier-Lloberas, C., and Bourdier, G. 1998. Seasonal dynamics of free and attached heterotrophic nanoflagellates in an oligomesotrophic lake. Freshw. Biol. 39:91–101.
Chatton, E. 1925. Pansporella perplexa, amoebien à spores protégées, parasite des Daphnies. Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des Protozoaires. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. 8:5–84.
Dunstan, G.A., Volkman, J.K., Barret, S.M., Leroi, J., and Jeffrey, S.W. 1994. Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids from 14 species of diatom. Phytochemistry 35:155–161.
Desvilettes, C., Bourdier, G., Amblard, C., and Barth, B. 1997. Use of fatty acids for the assessment of zooplankton grazing on bacteria, protozoan and microalgae. Freshw. Biol. 38:629–637.
Diez, B., Pedros-Alio, C., and Massana, R. 2001. Study of genetic diversity of eukaryotic picoplankton in different oceanic regions by small-subunit rRNA gene cloning and sequencing. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:2932–2941.
Dolan, J.R. 1997. Phosphorus and ammonia excretion by planktonic protists. Mar. Geol. 139:109–122.
Domergue, F., Spiekermann, P., Lerchl, J., Beckmann, C., Kilian, O., Kroth, P., Boland, W., Zähringer, U., and Heinz, E. 2003. New insight into Phaeodactylum tricornutum fatty acid metabolism. Cloning and functional characterization of plastidial and microsomal delta 12 fatty acid desaturases. Plant Phycol. 131:1648–1660.
Erwin, J.A. 1973. Lipids and biomembranes of eukaryotic microorganisms, pp. 40–143. In J.A. Erwin (ed.), Comparative biochemistry of fatty acids in eukaryotic microorganisms. Academic, New York.
Fauré-Fremiet, E. 1924. Contribution à la connaissance des Infusoires planctoniques. Suppl. Bull. Biol. Fr. Bel. 6:171.
Fogg, G.E. 1995. Some comments on picoplankton and its importance in the pelagic ecosystem. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 9:33–39.
Gifford, D.J. 1991. The protozoan-metazoan trophic link in pelagic ecosystems. J. Protozool. 38:81–86.
Gockel, G. and Hachtel, W. 2000. Complete gene map of the plastid genome of the nonphotosynthetic euglenoid flagellate Astasia longa. Protist 151:347–351.
Haeckel, E. 1866. Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, Allgemeine Anatomie der Organismen Vol. I, Reimer, Berlin.
Hashimoto, K., Yoshizawa, A., Saito, K., Yamada, T., and Kanehisa, M. 2006. The repertoire of desaturases for unsaturated fatty acid synthesis in 397 genomes. Genome Inform 17:173–183.
Hessen, D. O.1990. Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus status in Daphnia at varying food conditions. J. Plankton Res. 12:1239–1249.
Johnson, M.D., Oldach, D., Delwiche, C.F., and Stoecker, D.K. 2007. Retention of transcriptionally active cryptophyte nuclei by the ciliate Myrionecta rubra. Nature 445:426–428.
Kajikawa, K.T., Yamato, Y., Kohzu, S., Shoji, K., Matsui, Y., Tanaka, Y., and Fukuzawa, H. 2006. A front-end desaturase from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii produces pinolenic and coniferonic acids by ω13 desaturation in methylotrophic yeast and tobacco. Plant.Cell Physiol. 47:64–73.
Kaneshiro, E.S. 1980. Positional distribution of fatty acids in the major glycerophospholipids of Paramecium tetraurelia. J. Lipid Res. 21:559–570.
Khozin-Goldberg, I., Didi-Cohen, S., Shayakhmetova, I., and Cohen, Z. 2002. Biosynthesis of EPA in the freshwater eustigmatophyte Monodus subterraneus. J. Phycol. 38:745–751.
Klein Breteler, W.C.M., Schogt, N., Baas, M., Schouten, S., and Kraay, G.W. 1999. Trophic upgrading of food quality by protozoans enhancing copepod growth: role of essential lipids. Mar. Biol. 135:191–198.
Klein Breteler, W.C.M., Koski, M., and Rampen, S. 2002. Role of essential lipids in copepod nutrition: no evidence for trophic upgrading of food quality by a marine ciliate. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 274:199–208.
Landry, M.R. and Calbet, A. 2004. Microzoplankton production in the oceans. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 61:501–507.
Laybourn-Parry, J. and Parry, J. 2000. Flagellates and the microbial loop, pp. 216–239. In B.S.C. Leadbeater and J.C. Green (eds.), The flagellates. unity, diversity and evolution. Taylor & Francis, London.
Lefèvre, E., Bardot, C., Noël, C., Carrias, J-F., Viscogliosi, E., Amblard, C., and SimeNgando, T. 2007. Unveiling fungal zooflagellates as members of freshwater picoeukaryotes: evidence from a molecular diversity study in a deep meromictic lake. Environ. Microbiol. 9:61–71.
Li, W.K.W., Subba Rao, D.V., Harrison, W.C., Smith, J.C., Cullen, J.J., Irwin, B., and Platt, T. 1983. Autotrophic picoplankton in the tropical ocean. Science 219:292–295.
Mansour, M.P., Volkman, J.K., Holdsworth, D.G., Jackson, A.E., and Blackburn, S.I. 1999. Very-long-chain (C28) highly unsaturated fatty acids in marine dinoflagellates. Phytochemistry 50:541–548.
Martin-Creuzburg, D., Bec, A., and Von Elert, E. 2005. Trophic upgrading of picocyanobacterial carbon by ciliates for nutrition of Daphnia magna. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 41:271–280.
Martin-Creuzburg, D., Bec, A., and Von Elert, E. 2006. Supplementation with sterols improves food quality of a ciliate for Daphnia magna. Protist 157:477–486.
McManus, G.B. 1991. Flow analysis of a planktonic microbial food web model. Mar. Microb. Food Webs 5:145–160.
Metz, J.G., Roessler, P., Facciotti, D., Levering, C., Dittrich, F., Lassner, M., Valentine, R., Kathryn Lardizabal, K., Frederic Domergue, F., Yamada, A., Yazawa, K., Knauf, V., and John Browse, J. 2001. Production of polyunsaturated fatty acids by polyketide synthases in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Science 293:290–293.
Meyer, A., Cirpus, P., Ott, C., Schlecker, R., Zähringer, U., and Heinz, E. 2003. Biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid in Euglena gracilis: biochemical and molecular evidence for the involvement of a Δ4-fatty acyl group desaturase. Biochemistry 42:9779–9788.
Mignot, J-P. 1977. Etude ultrastructurale d’un flagellé du genre Spumella – Chrysomonadine leucoplastidié. Protistologica 13:219–231.
Nakashima, S., Zhao, Y., and Nozawa, Y. 1996. Molecular cloning of delta 9 fatty acid desaturase from the protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila and its mRNA expression during thermal membrane adaptation. Biochem. J. 317:29–34.
Nichols, B.W. and Appleby, R.S. 1969. The distribution and biosynthesis of arachidonic acid in algae. Phytochemistry 8:1907–1915.
Nozawa, Y. and Thompson, G.A. 1979. Lipids and membrane organization in Tetrahymena, pp.276–335. In M. Levandowski and S.H. Hutner (eds.), Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa. Academic, New York.
Park, J.S., Simpson, A.G.B., Lee, W.J., and Cho, B.C. 2007. Ultrastructure and phylogenetic placement within Heterolobosea of the previously unclassified, extremely halophilic heterotrophic flagellate Pleurostomum flabellatum (Ruinen 1938). Protist 158:397–413.
Parrish, C.C., Whiticar, M., and Puvanendran, V. 2007. Is ω6 docosapentaenoic acid an essential fatty acid during early ontogeny in marine fauna? Limnol. Oceanogr. 53:478–479.
Poerschmann, J., Spijkerman, E., and Langer, U. 2004. Fatty acid patterns in Chlamydomonas sp. as a marker for nutritional regimes and temperature under extremely acidic conditions. Microb. Ecol. 48:78–89.
Pomeroy, L.R. 1974. The ocean’s food web, a changing paradigm. Bioscience. 24:499–504.
Ratledge, C. 2004. Fatty acid biosynthesis in microorganisms being used for single cell oil production. Biochimie 86:807–815.
Riekhof, W.R., Sears, B.B., and Benning, C. 2005. Annotation of genes involved in glycerolipid biosynthesis in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: discovery of the betaine lipid synthase. Eukaryot. Cell. 4:242–252.
Rivkin, R.B. and Legendre, L. 2001. Biogenic carbon cycling in the upper ocean: effects of microbial respiration. Science 291:2398–2400.
Sanchez-Puerta, M.V., Lippmeier, J.C., Apt, K.E., and Delwiche, C.F. 2007. Plastid genes in a non-photosynthetic dinoflagellate. Protist 158:105–117.
Sanders, R.W. and Wickham, S.A. 1993. Planktonic protozoa and metazoa: predation, food quality and population control. Mar. Microb. Food Webs 7:197–223.
Sanders, R.W., Williamson, C.E., Stutsman, P.L., Moeller, R.E., Goulden, C.E., and Aoki-Goldsmith, R. 1996. Reproductive success of “herbivorous” zooplankton fed algal and non algal food resources. Limnol. Oceanogr. 41:1295–1305.
Sargent, J.R., Bell, M.V., and Henderson, R.J. 1995. Protists as sources of (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids for vertebrate development, pp. 54–64. In G. Brugerolle and J. P. Mignot (eds.), Protistological actualities. Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference on Protistology and the 8th European Conference on Ciliate Biology, Aubiere Cedex, France.
Sayanova, O., Haslam, R., Guschina, I., Lloyd, D., Christie, W.W., Harwood, J.L., and Napier, J.A. 2006. A bifunctional ∆z12, ∆15 desaturase from Acanthamoeba castellanii directs the synthesis of highly unusual n-1 series unsaturated fatty acids. J. Biol. Biochem. 281:36533–36541.
Scott, F.J., Davidson, A.T., and MArchant, H.J. 2001. Grazing by the antarctic sea ice ciliate Pseudocohnolembus. Polar Biol. 24:127–131.
Sekiguchi, H., Moriya, M., Nakayama, T., and Inouye, I. 2001. Vestigial chloroplasts in heterotrophic stramenopiles Pteridomonas danica and Ciliophrys infusionum (Dictyochophyceae).aProtist153:157–167.
Sherr, E.B. and Sherr, B.F. 1988. Role of microbes in pelagic food webs: a revised concept. Limnol. Oceanogr. 33:225–1227.
Sherr, E.B. and Sherr, B.F. 2002. Significance of predation by protists in aquatic microbial food webs. Anton. Leeuw. Int. J. G. 81:293–308.
Sherr, E.B. and Sherr, B.F. 2007. Heterotrophic dinoflagellates: a significant component of microzooplankton biomass and major grazers of diatoms in the sea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 352:187–197.
Sherr, E.B., Sherr, B.F., and Paffenhöffer, G.A. 1986. Phagotrophic protozoa as food for metazoans: a ‘missing’ trophic link in marine pelagic food webs? Mar. Microb. Food Webs 1:61–80.
Sherr, B.F., Sherr, E.B., and Albright, L.J. 1987. Bacteria: link or sink? Science 235:88–89.
Stockner, J.G. and Antia, N.J. 1986. Algal picoplankton from marine and freshwater ecosystems: a multidisciplinary perspective. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43:2472–2503.
Stockner, J.G. and Shortreed, K.S. 1989. Algal picoplancton production and contribution to food webs in oligotrophic British Columbia lakes. Hydrobiologia 173:151–166.
Stoecker, D.K. 1998. Conceptual models of mixotrophy in planktonic protists and some ecological and evolutionary implications. Eur. J. Protistol. 34:281–290.
Stoecker, D.K. and McDowell Capuzzo, J. 1990. Predation on protozoa: its importance to zooplankton. J. Plankton Res. 12:891–908.
Straile, D. 1997. Gross growth efficiencies of protozoan and metazoan zooplankton and their dependence on food concentration, predator-prey weight ratio, and taxonomic group. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42:1375–1385.
Sul, D. and Erwin, J.A. 1997. The membrane lipids of the marine ciliated protozoan Parauronema acutum. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1345:162–171.
Tonon, T., Harvey, D., Larson, T.R., and Graham, I.A. 2003. Identification of a very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ∆4-desaturase from the microalga Pavlova lutheri. FEBS Lett. 553:440–450.
Tripodi, K., Buttigliero, L., Altabe, S., and Uttaro, A. 2005. Functional characterization of front-end desaturase from trypanosomatids depicts the first PUFA biosynthetic pathway from a parasitic protozoan. FEBS Lett. 273:271–280.
Van Pelt , C.K., Huang , M.C., Tschanz , C.L., and Brenna , J.T . 1999. An octaene fatty acid, 4,7,10,13,16,19,22,25-octacosaoctaenoic acid (28:8n-3) found in marine oils. J. Lipid Res. 40:1501–1505.
Veloza, A.J., Chu, F-L.E., and Tang, K.W. 2006. Trophic modification of essential fatty acids by heterotrophic protists and its effects on the fatty acid composition of the copepod Acartia tonsa. Mar. Biol. 148:779–788.
Venegas-Calerón , M., Beaudoin, F., Sayanova, O., and Napier, J.A. 2007. Co-transcribed genes for long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in the protozoon Perkinsus marinus include a plant-like FAE1 3-ketoacyl coenzyme A synthase. Biol. Chem. 282:2996–3003.
Vera, A., Desvilettes, C., Bec, A., and Bourdier, G. 2001. Fatty acid composition of freshwater heterotrophic flagellates: an experimental study. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 25:271–279.
Volkman, J.K., Jeffrey, S.W., Nichols, P.D., Rogers, G.I., and Garland, C.D. 1989. Fatty acid and lipid composition of 10 species of microalgae used in aquaculture. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 128:219–240.
Vørs, N., Buck, K.R., Chavez, F.P., Eikrem, W., Hansen, L., Østergaard, J.B., and Thomsen, H. 1995. Nanoplankton of the equatorial Pacific with emphasis on the heterotrophic protists. Deep-Sea Res. II 42:585–602.
Wallis, J.G. and Browse, J. 1999. The Δ8 desaturase of Euglena gracilis: an alternate pathway for synthesis of 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids. Archiv. Biochem. Biophys. 365:307–316.
Weisse, T. 1993. Dynamics of autotrophic picoplankton in marine and freshwater ecosystems. Adv. Microb. Ecol. 13:327–369.
Wieltschnig, C., Kirschner, A.K.T., Steitz, A., and Velimirov, B. 2001. Weak coupling between heterotrophic nanoflagellates and bacteria in a eutrophic freshwater environment. Microb. Ecol. 42:159–167.
Zhukova, N.V. and Kharlamenko, V.I. 1999. Sources of essential fatty acids in the marine microbial loop. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 17:153–157.
Acknowledgments
We thank Professor Gilles Bourdier for having invited us (some years ago) to collaborate on his research project. We thank Diane Stoecker, Evelyn and Barry Sherr for having provided useful information and many answers. We are grateful to Dr. Keith Joblin (AgResearch Ltd., Hamilton N.Z.) for his help in improving the text from a linguistic perspective.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Desvilettes, C., Bec, A. (2009). Formation and Transfer of Fatty Acids in Aquatic Microbial Food Webs: Role of Heterotrophic Protists. In: Kainz, M., Brett, M., Arts, M. (eds) Lipids in Aquatic Ecosystems. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89366-2_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89366-2_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-88607-7
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-89366-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)