Abstract
As the largest and outermost organ of the body, human skin is a continual target for chemical toxicity which has the potential to cause tissue damage. In combination with certain chemicals, the presence of additional or existing oxidative stress may exacerbate the degree of damage, due to photoactivation of the chemical. In addition, oxidative-stress per se is a known trigger for cellular pathology. Antioxidants are substances which prevent oxidative damage to cells and tissues. Endogenous enzymatic antioxidants include superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase; and nonenzymatic antioxidants include vitamins E and vitamin C, coenzyme Q10, glutathione, etc. However, oxidative imbalance will arise when such cellular defences are not able to counteract the rate at which free radicals are generated. An excess of free radicals will cause structural or functional damage to cellular macromolecules leading to perturbations in metabolism, functional impairment, necrosis or apoptosis. In this chapter, we review studies on the use of antioxidants on the skin.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsAbbreviations
- 8-OHdG:
-
8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine
- ALA:
-
α-lipoic acid
- ATP:
-
Adenosine triphosphate
- BP:
-
Benz(a)pyrene
- CAT:
-
Catalase
- CEES:
-
2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide
- CL:
-
Chemiluminescense
- COX-2:
-
Cyclooxygenase-2
- DHLA:
-
Dihydrolipoic acid
- DMBA:
-
Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene
- DNCB:
-
2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene
- DOPA:
-
Dihydroxyphenylalanine
- DPPH:
-
1,1- diphenyl- 2-picrylhydrazyl
- ERK:
-
Extracellular signal-regulated kinase
- FAK:
-
Focal adhesion kinase
- Grb2:
-
Growth-factor receptor-bound protein 2
- GSE:
-
Grape seed extract
- GSH-Px:
-
Glutathione peroxidase
- GSPs:
-
Grape seed proanthocyanidins
- GPx:
-
Glutathione peroxidase
- HD:
-
Sulfur mustard
- HO-1:
-
Heme oxygenase-1
- ICAM-1:
-
Intercellular adhesion molecule-1
- ICD:
-
Irritant contact dermatitis
- IFN:
-
Interferon
- IGF-1:
-
Insulin-like growth factor-1
- IKKα:
-
IkappaB kinase alpha
- IL:
-
Interleukin
- IL-12-KO:
-
IL-12p40 knockout
- iNOS:
-
Inducible NO synthase
- JNK:
-
Jun N-terminal kinase
- LDH:
-
Lactate dehydrogenase
- LPS:
-
Lipopolysaccharide
- LPO:
-
Lipid peroxides
- MAPK:
-
Mitogen-activated protein kinase
- MCP:
-
Monocyte chemoattractant protein
- MDA:
-
Malondialdehyde
- MG:
-
Mono/diglycerides of capric and caprylic acids
- MMP:
-
Matrix metalloproteinase
- MPO:
-
Myeloperoxidase
- NF-κB:
-
Nuclear factor-kappaB
- PAF:
-
Platelet-activating factor
- PAF-R:
-
PAF-receptor
- PARP:
-
Poly ADP ribose polymerase
- PCNA:
-
Proliferating cell nuclear antigen
- PD:
-
Pyrimidine dimmer
- PDGF-BB:
-
Platelet-derived growth factor-BB
- PGE2 :
-
Prostaglandin E2
- PKC:
-
Protein kinase C
- PMNL:
-
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
- ROS:
-
Reactive oxygen species
- SOD:
-
Superoxide dismutase
- STAT1:
-
Signal transducer activator of transcription
- SVCT-1:
-
Sodium-dependent vitamin C transporter-1
- TG:
-
Triglycerides of capric and caprylic acids
- TGF-β:
-
Transforming growth factor-beta
- TCHQ:
-
Tetrachlorohydroquinone
- t-BHP:
-
t-butylhydroperoxide
- TPA:
-
12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
- TNF-α:
-
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha
- UVA:
-
Ultraviolet A
- UVB:
-
Ultraviolet B
- VEGF:
-
Vascular endothelial growth factor
References
Alias, L.M., Manoharan, S., Vellaichamy, L., Balakrishnan, S. Ramachandran, C.R., 2009. Protective effect of ferulic acid on 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced skin carcinogenesis in Swiss albino mice. Experimental Toxicologic Pathology 61, 205–214.
Beitner H., 2003. Randomized, placebo-controlled, double blind study on the clinical efficacy of a cream containing 5 % alpha-lipoic acid related to photoageing of facial skin. British Journal of Dermatology 149, 841–849.
Baumann, L., 2009. Cosmetic dermatology: principles and practice, second edition. McGraw-Hill Medical Publishers, New York, NY, USA.
Cao, C., Lu, S., Kivlin, R., Wallin, B., Card, E., Bagdasarian, A., Tamakloe, T., Wang, W.J., Song, X., Chu, W.M., Kouttab, N., Xu, A. and Wan, Y., 2009. SIRT1 confers protection against UVB- and H2O2-induced cell death via modulation of p53 and JNK in cultured skin keratinocytes. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine 13, 3632–3643.
Cassano, R., Trombino, S., Muzzalupo, R., Tavano, L., and Picci, N., 2009. A novel dextran hydrogel linking transferulic acid for the stabilization and transdermal delivery of vitamin E. European Journal of Pharmuetics and Biopharmeutics 72, 232–238.
Cesarini, J.P., Michel, L., Maurette, J.M., Adhoute, H. and Bejot, M., 2003. Immediate effects of UV radiation on the skin: modification by an antioxidant complex containing carotenoids. Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and Photomedicine 19, 182–189.
Chen, X., Touyz, R.M., Park, J.B. and Schiffrin, E.L., 2001. Antioxidant effects of vitamins C and E are associated with altered activation of vascular NADPH oxidase and superoxide dismutase in stroke-prone SHR. Hypertension. 38, 606–611.
Chiang, H.S., Wu, W.B., Fang, J.Y., Chen, D.F., Chen, B.H., Huang, C.C., Chen, Y.T. and Hung, C.F., 2007. Lycopene inhibits PDGF-BB-induced signaling and migration in human dermal fibroblasts through interaction with PDGF-BB. Life Sciences 81, 1509–1517.
Choo, S.J., Ryoo, I.J., Kim, Y.H., Xu, G.H., Kim, W.G., Kim, K.H., Moon, S.J., Son, E.D., Bae, K. and Yoo, I.D., 2009. Silymarin inhibits melanin synthesis in melanocyte cells. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 61, 663–667.
Crane, F.L., 2001. Biochemical functions of coenzyme Q10. Journal of American College of Nutrition 20, 591–598.
Deriabina, O.N., Plotnikova, N.A. and Anisimov, V.N., 2010. Melatonin and metformin inhibit skin carcinogenesis induced by benz(a)pyrene in mice. Vopr Onkol. 56, 583–587.
Dujic, J., Kippenberger, S., Hoffmann, S., Ramirez-Bosca, A., Miquel, J., Diaz-Alperi, J., Bereiter-Hahn, J., Kaufmann, R. and Bernd, A., 2007. Low concentrations of curcumin induce growth arrest and apoptosis in skin keratinocytes only in combination with UVA or visible light. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 127, 1992–2000.
Fabbrocini, G., Kisslinger, A., Iannelli, P., Vitale, N., Procaccini, C., Sparanceo, G., Chieffi, P., Ayala, F., Mcncini, F.P. and Tramontano, D., 2010. Resveratrol regulates p66Shc activation in HaCaT cells. Experiamental Dermatology 19, 895–903.
Fischer, T.W., Zmijewski, M.A., Wortsman, J. and Slominski, A., 2008. Melatonin maintains mitochondrial membrane potential and attenuates activation of initiator (casp-9) and effector caspases (casp-3/casp-7) and PARP in UVR-exposed HaCaT keratinocytes. Journal of Pineal Research 44, 397–407.
Fuchs, J., Weber, S., Podda, M., Groth, N., Herrling, T., Packer, L., Kaufmann, R., 2003. HPLC analysis of vitamin E isoforms in human epidermis: correlation with minimal erythema dose and free radical scavenging activity. Free Radic Biol Med.34, 330–336.
Garg, R., Ramchandani, A.G. and Maru, G.B., 2008. Curcumin decreases 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced protein kinase C translocation to modulate downstream targets in mouse skin. Carcinogenesis. 29, 1249–1257.
Han, M.H., Yoon, W.K., Lee, H., Han, S.B., Lee, K., Park, S.K., Yang, K.H., Kim, H.M. and Kang, J.S., 2007. Topical application of silymarin reduces chemical-induced irritant contact dermatitis in BALB/c mice. International Immunopharmacology 7, 1651–1658.
Ho, Y.S., Lai, C.S., Liu, H.I., Ho, S.Y., Tai, C., Pan, M.H. and Wang, Y.J., 2007. Dihydrolipoic acid inhibits skin tumor promotion through anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation. Biochemical Pharmacology 73, 1786–1795.
Hoppe, U., Bergemann, J., Diembeck, W., Ennen, J., Gohla, S., Harris, I., Jacob, J., Kielholz, J., Mei, W., Pollet, D., Schachtschabel, D., Sauermann, G., Schreiner, V., Stäb, F. and Steckel, F., 1999. Coenzyme Q10, a cutaneous antioxidant and energizer. Biofactors. 9, 371–378.
Inui, M., Ooe, M., Fujii, K., Matsunaka, H., Yoshida, M. and Ichihashi, M., 2008. Mechanisms of inhibitory effects of CoQ10 on UVB-induced wrinkle formation in vitro and in vivo. Biofactors. 32, 237–243.
Izykowska, I., Cegielski, M., Gebarowska, E., Podhorska-Okolow, M., Piotrowska, A., Zabel, M. and Dziegiel, P., 2009. Effect of melatonin on human keratinocytes and fibroblasts subjected to UVA and UVB radiation In vitro. In Vivo. 23, 739–745.
Jing, W., Cen, Y. and Zhang, Y., 2007. Experimental study on effect of reduced glutathione on random flap survival in rats. Zhongguo Xiu Fu Chong Jian Wai Ke Za Zhi. (Chinese journal of reparative and reconstructive surgery) 21, 909–912.
Kang, J.S., Kim, H.N., Jung da, J., Kim, J.E., Mun, G.H., Kim, Y.S., Cho, D., Shin, D.H., Hwang, Y.I. and Lee, W.J., 2007. Regulation of UVB-induced IL-8 and MCP-1 production in skin keratinocytes by increasing vitamin C uptake via the redistribution of SVCT-1 from the cytosol to the membrane. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 127, 698–706.
Kang, S., Chung, J.H., Lee, J.H., Fisher, G.J, Wan, Y.S., Duell, E.A. and Voorhees, J.J., 2003. Topical N-acetyl cysteine and genistein prevent ultraviolet-light-induced signaling that leads to photoaging in human skin in vivo. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 120, 835–841.
Khanna, S., Venojarvi, M., Roy, S., Sharma, N., Trikha, P., Bagchi, D., Bagchi, M., Sen and C.K., 2002. Dermal wound healing properties of redox-active grape seed proanthocyanidins. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 33, 1089–1096.
Kim, T.H., Jung, J.A., Kim, G.D., Jang, A.H., Ahn, H.J., Park, Y.S. and Park, C.S., 2009. Melatonin inhibits the development of 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions in NC/Nga mice. Journal of Pineal Research 47, 324–329.
Lin, F.H., Lin, J.Y., Gupta, R.D., Tournas, J.A., Burch, J.A., Selim, M.A., Monteiro-Riviere, N.A., Grichnik, J.M., Zielinski, J. and Pinnell, S.R., 2005. Ferulic acid stabilizes a solution of vitamins C and E and doubles its photoprotection of skin. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 125, 826–832.
Lopes, L.B., VanDeWall, H., Li, H.T., Venugopal, V., Li, H.K., Naydin, S., Hosmer, J., Levendusky, M., Zheng, H., Bentley, M.V., Levin, R. and Hass, M.A., 2010. Topical delivery of lycopene using microemulsions: enhanced skin penetration and tissue antioxidant activity. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 99, 1346–1357.
Luo, D., Lin, X.F., Min, W., Ma, Q.H., Gu, N., Jin, S.L. and Wang, D.G., 2007. Photoprotection by tocopherol submicron emulsion against UV-mediated damage in HaCaT cells. Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology 29, 185–189.
Meeran, S.M., Akhtar, S. and Katiyar, S.K., 2009. Inhibition of UVB-induced skin tumor development by drinking green tea polyphenols is mediated through DNA repair and subsequent inhibition of inflammation. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 129, 1258–1270.
Meeran, S.M., Mantena, S.K., Elmets, C.A. and Katiyar, S.K., 2006. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate prevents photocarcinogenesis in mice through interleukin-12-dependent DNA repair. Cancer Research 66, 5512–5520.
Moore, J.O., Wang, Y., Stebbins, W.G., Gao, D., Zhou, X., Phelps, R., Lebwohl, M. and Wei, H., 2006. Photoprotective effect of isoflavone genistein on ultraviolet B-induced pyrimidine dimer formation and PCNA expression in human reconstituted skin and its implications in dermatology and prevention of cutaneous carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis. 27, 1627–1635.
Murray, J.C., Burch, J.A., Streilein, R.D., Iannacchione, M.A., Hall, R.P. and Pinnell, S.R., 2008. A topical antioxidant solution containing vitamins C and E stabilized by ferulic acid provides protection for human skin against damage caused by ultraviolet irradiation. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 59, 418–425.
Muta-Takada, K., Terada, T., Yamanishi, H., Ashida, Y., Inomata, S., Nishiyama, T. and Amano, S., 2009. Coenzyme Q10 protects against oxidative stress-induced cell death and enhances the synthesis of basement membrane components in dermal and epidermal cells. Biofactors. 35, 435–441.
Ozler, M., Simsek, K., Ozkan, C., Akgul, E.O., Topal, T., Oter, S. and Korkmaz, A., 2010. Comparison of the effect of topical and systemic melatonin administration on delayed wound healing in rats that underwent pinealectomy. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 70, 447–452.
Panchatcharam, M., Miriyala, S., Gayathri, V.S. and Suguna, L., 2006. Curcumin improves wound healing by modulating collagen and decreasing reactive oxygen species. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 290, 87–96.
Prahl, S., Kueper, T., Biernoth, T., Wöhrmann, Y., Münster, A., Fürstenau, M., Schmidt, M., Schulze, C., Wittern, K.P., Wenck, H., Muhr, G.M. and Blatt, T., Aging skin is functionally anaerobic: importance of coenzyme Q10 for anti aging skin care. Biofactors 2008. 32, 245–255.
Quinzii, C.M., López, L.C., Von-Moltke, J., Naini, A., Krishna, S., Schuelke, M., Salviati, L., Navas, P., DiMauro, S. and Hirano, M., 2008. Respiratory chain dysfunction and oxidative stress correlate with severity of primary CoQ10 deficiency. FASEB Journal. 22, 1874–1885.
Quinzii, C.M., López, L.C., Gilkerson, R.W., Dorado, B., Coku, J., Naini, A.B., Lagier-Tourenne, C., Schuelke, M., Salviati, L., Carrozzo, R., Santorelli, F., Rahman, S., Tazir, M., Koenig, M., DiMauro, S. and Hirano, M., 2010. Reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, and cell death correlate with level of CoQ10 deficiency. FASEB Journal 24, 3733–3743.
Roy, P., Madan, E., Kalra, N., Nigam, N., George, J., Ray, R.S., Hans, R.K., Prasad, S. and Shukla, Y., 2009. Resveratrol enhances ultraviolet B-induced cell death through nuclear factor-kappaB pathway in human epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells. Biochememical and Biophysical Research Communications 384, 215–220.
Sharma, S.D., Meeran, S.M. and Katiyar S.K., 2007. Dietary grape seed proanthocyanidins inhibit UVB-induced oxidative stress and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and nuclear factor-kappaB signaling in in vivo SKH-1 hairless mice. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics 6, 995–1005.
Sienkiewicz, P., Surazyński, A., Pałka, J. and Miltyk, W., 2008. Nutritional concentration of genistein protects human dermal fibroblasts from oxidative stress-induced collagen biosynthesis inhibition through IGF-I receptor-mediated signaling. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica 65, 203–211.
Tewari-Singh, N., Agarwal, C., Huang, J., Day, B.J., White, C.W. and Agarwal, R., 2011. Efficacy of glutathione in ameliorating sulfur mustard analog-induced toxicity in cultured skin epidermal cells and in SKH-1 mouse skin in vivo. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 336, 450–459.
Toklu, H.Z., Tunali-Akbay, T., Erkanli, G., Yüksel, M., Ercan, F. and Sener, G., 2007. Silymarin, the antioxidant component of Silybum marianum, protects against burn-induced oxidative skin injury. Burns. 33, 908–916.
Tsuji-Naito, K., Ishikura, S., Akagawa, M. and Saeki, H., 2010. α-Lipoic acid induces collagen biosynthesis involving prolyl hydroxylase expression via activation of TGF-β-Smad signaling in human dermal fibroblasts. Connective Tissue Research 51, 378–387.
Villarama, C.D. and Maibach, H.I., 2005. Glutathione as a depigmenting agent: an overview. International Journal of Cosmetic Science 27, 147–153.
Wu, L.Y., Zheng, X.Q., Lu, J.L. and Liang, Y.R., 2009. Protective effect of green tea polyphenols against ultraviolet B-induced damage to HaCaT cells. Human Cell. 22, 18–24.
Wu, W.B., Chiang, H.S., Fang, J.Y. and Hung, C.F., 2007. Inhibitory effect of lycopene on PDGF-BB-induced signalling and migration in human dermal fibroblasts: a possible target for cancer. Biochemical Society Transactions 35, 1377–1378.
Yamakoshi, J., Otsuka, F., Sano, A., Tokutake, S., Saito, M., Kikuchi, M. and Kubota, Y., 2003. Lightening effect on ultraviolet-induced pigmentation of guinea pig skin by oral administration of a proanthocyanidin-rich extract from grape seeds. Pigment Cell Research 16, 629–638.
Yamakoshi, J., Sano, A., Tokutake, S., Saito, M., Kikuchi, M., Kubota, Y., Kawachi, Y. and Otsuka, F., 2004. Oral intake of proanthocyanidin-rich extract from grape seeds improves chloasma. Phytotherapy Research 18, 895–899.
Yao, Y., Wolverton, J.E., Zhang, Q., Marathe, G.K., Al-Hassani, M., Konger, R.L. and Travers, J.B., 2009. Ultraviolet B radiation generated platelet-activating factor receptor agonist formation involves EGF-R-mediated reactive oxygen species. Journal of Immunology 182, 2842–2848.
Acknowledgements
This paper was partly supported by Programme for Changjiang Scholars and Innovative Teams in Universities, Ministry of Education, China (IRT0760).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Wageningen Academic Publishers
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wu, Y., Chen, HD., Li, YH., Gao, XH., Preedy, V.R. (2012). Antioxidants and skin: an overview. In: Preedy, V.R. (eds) Handbook of diet, nutrition and the skin. Human Health Handbooks no. 1, vol 2. Wageningen Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-729-5_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-729-5_5
Publisher Name: Wageningen Academic Publishers
Online ISBN: 978-90-8686-729-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)