Theoretical Guidance

Abstract

In coining the maxim ‘Pessimism of the intelligence, optimism of the will’, his programmatic slogan in 1919, Gramsci wanted to underline the importance of Machiavelli’s realistic approach to achieve social change and the need for active and realistic politicians to combine the pessimism of the intelligence with an optimism of the will (Gramsci 1971, pp. 174–5). However, today pessimism of the intelligence still prevails. The TINA syndrome (There Is No Alternative) has made it difficult even to conceptualise structural change, let alone identify the forces and actions required to achieve it. Normative approaches to future prospects for development are at most viewed as a required rhetoric that is conveniently used at international summits.