Abstract
At the time of Swearingen’s victory, the schools of South Carolina— particularly the secondary schools—were still primarily nineteenth-century institutions. During his tenure in office, particularly when working with governors who viewed education as an issue of importance, Swearingen worked diligently to move the schools into the twentieth century. While establishing routines in his office that both comforted his staff and established efficiency, he took control. Soon he established himself as a force to be reckoned with politically and legislatively, working to enact much needed reforms almost as soon as he entered office.
With a firm reliance in the patriotism, chivalry, courage, pride, and sense of justice of the Southern people, with a profound conviction of the necessity of universal education for the preservation and perpetuation of democracy, with an assurance born of the evidence of all past experience and all past history that the only means of universal education are the public schools.
— J. Y. Joyner, Address to the People of the South, 1904
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Notes
Joyner, J. Y., Whitfield, H. L., & Mynders, S. A. (1904). Address to the people of the south. Thirty-sixth annual report of the South Carolina state superintendent of education. Columbia, SC: State Printing Company, 35–42.
Beneke, T. (1997). Proving manhood: Reflections on men and sexism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 40.
Swearingen, M. H. (1950). A gallant journey: Mr. Swearingen and his family. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 116–117
Ibid., 90. For further details on funding inequities along color lines, see Anderson, J. D. (1988). Chapter 6: The Black public high school and the reproduction of caste in the urban South 1880–1935. The education of Blacks in the South 1860–1935. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Edgar, W. B. (1992). South Carolina in the modern age. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 40.
Testi, A. (March 1995).The gender of reform politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the culture of masculinity. The Journal of American History, 81(4), 1513 and 1517.
Houchins, J. F. Progressive politics, or why no. 3. (December 21, 1911). The Standard. Holley, New York.
Rogers, G. C. & Taylor, C. J. (1994). A South Carolina chronology 1497–1992. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 121–122.
Edgar, W. B. (1998). South Carolina: A history. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 463.
Biebel, C. D. (1976). Private foundations and public policy: The case of secondary education during the Great Depression. History of Education Quarterly 16(1), 3–4.
see also Anderson, E. & Moss, A. A. (1999). Chapter 4: The general education board’s choices. Dangerous donations: Northern philanthropy and southern black education, 1902–1930. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 85–107
Anderson, J. D. (1978). Northern foundations and the shaping of Southern Black rural education 1902–1935. History of Education Quarterly, 18(4), 373.
Collins, E. to Buttrick, W. (September 13, 1904). General Education Board Archives. (1993). Series 1: Appropriations;
Stinson, R. to Thomas, J. (March 19, 1917). General Education Board Archives. (1993). Series 1: Appropriations;
Bonner, R. R. to Peabody, G. F. (November 17, 1902). General Education Board Archives. Series 1: Appropriations;
Leverenz, D. (2003). Paternalism incorporated: Fables of American fatherhood 1865–1940. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 3.
Williamson, J. (1984). The crucible of race: Black-White relations in the American South since Emancipation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2.
Swearingen, J. E. to Buttrick, W. (January 29, 1921). General Education Board Archives. (1993). Series 1: Appropriations;
Swearingen, J. E. to Flexner, A. (April 11, 1921). General Education Board Archives. (1993). Series 1: Appropriations;
Swearingen, J. E. to Flexner, A. (June 9, 1921). General Education Board Archives. (1993). Series 1: Appropriations;
Reese, W. J. (2011). America’s public schools: From the common school to “no child left behind.” Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 121–122.
Link, W. A. (1992). The paradox of Southern progressivism, 1880–1930. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 11.
Anderson, The education of Blacks in the South, 197. The South is a unique study of African American education, because as late as 1930, up to 80 percent of the African American population in the United States lived in Southern States. Nationally, by 1910 only 2.8 percent of African American students were enrolled in high schools, compared to 10.1 percent of white students. For further discussion of this matter, see Angus, D. & Mirei, J. (1999). The failed promise of the American high school 1890–1935. New York, NY: New York Teacher’s Press, 40.
Tyack, D. (1974). The one best system: A history of American urban education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 62.
Tyack, The one best system, 63–64. For a further discussion of the feminization of the teaching corps and male reaction to this, see Aspinwall, K. & Drummond, M. J. (1989). Socialized into teaching. In DeLyon, H. & Migniuolo, F. W. (Eds.), Women teachers: Issues and experiences. Philadelphia, PA: Milton Keyes Press;
Clifford, G. J. (1991). Daughters into teachers: Educational and demographic influences on the transformation of teaching into “women’s work” in America. In Prentice, A. & Theobald, M. R. (Eds.), Women who taught: Perspectives on the history of women and teaching. Toronto: University of Toronto Press;
Oram, A. (1989). A master should not serve under a mistress: Women teachers and men teachers 1900–1970. In Acker, S. (Ed.), Teachers, gender, and careers. New York, NY: Falmer Press;
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and Weiler, K. (1989). Women’s history and the history of women teachers. Journal of Education, 171(3), 9–30.
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© 2014 Edward Janak
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Janak, E. (2014). Fighting the Good Fight, 1907–1915. In: Politics, Disability, and Education Reform in the South. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137484062_3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137484062_3
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